
Book.- 
GoEyrigMTI". 




COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



METHODS AND STANDARDS 

FOR LOCAL SCHOOL 

SURVEYS 



BY 

DON C. BLISS 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
MONTCLAIR, NEW JERSEY 



WITH INTRODUCTION 

BY 
GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 
teachers' COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






Copyright, 191 8, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 



JUN 17 1918 

C)C!.A497791 



%o mv Wiitt 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

In the preparation of the material in this book, constant 
use has been made of the reports of surveys conducted by 
groups of experts in different cities. If there is failure in 
adequate acknowledgment of borrowed material, it is due 
to oversight and not to any intention of utilizing the labors 
of others in an unauthorized manner. 

Acknowledgment is due Dr. George D. Strayer for permis- 
sion to use his building score card; to Superintendent James 
H. Van Sickle for the tables from the Brookline Survey, and to 
Dr. Leonard Ayres for similar data from the Cleveland Survey 
Report. 

The author is under personal obhgation to Professor E. 
Gordon Bill of Dartmouth College, Miss Mabel W. Doten 
of Montclair, N. J., and Dr. L. L. Jackson, Assistant Super- 
intendent of Schools, Montclair, for suggestions and criticisms, 
and to Mr. E. L. Stone of Montclair for very valuable assistance 
in preparing the chapter on "Planning for Future Needs." 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Introduction hy George Drayton Strayer .... xvii 
I. Introductory 1 

Attitude of Public. Value of Surveys. Advantage of 
Investigations by Local Superintendent. 

II. General Conditions • . • 6 

Map of City. Location of Schools. Nativity of Popu- 
lation. Percentage of Children. Attendance Data. 

III. Organization and Administration 12 

Authority of Superintendent. Function of Board of 
Education. Size of Board. Organization. 

IV. The Supervisory and Teaching Staff ... 19 

Type of Supervision. Relative Number of Supervisors, | 
Teachers, and Pupils. Typical Organization. Training ' 
of Superintendent. Professional Training of Teachers. 
Local Teachers. Tenure of Service. Experience. 

V. Salaries 27 

What Constitutes a Reasonable Salary. Average and 
Median Salaries in Elementary and Secondary Schools. 
Allowance for Absence. Comparative Salaries of Teachers 
and other Wage Earners. Improvement in Service. 

VI. Pupils 34 

Value of Census. Relation of Census Enumeration and 
School Attendance. Distribution of Pupils in Grades. 
Holding Power of Schools. Persistence of Attendance. 
Number of Days Actually Attended. Age and Grade, and 
Age and Progress Statistics. Acceleration and Retarda- 
tion. Causes of Retardation. Promotion. Failures in 
Elementary and High Schools. Class Size. Weekly 
Recitations per Teacher. 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 
VII. Efficiency of Instruction 62 

Methods of Determining Efficiency. Principles for Giv- 
ing Standard Tests. Rating Papers. Quality of Pen- 
manship. Standards of Attainment. Futility of Spelling 
Grind. Size of Vocabulary. Spelling Scales in Use. 
Reasonable Demands. Courtis and Stone Tests. Stand- 
ards. Difficulties of Measuring English Composition. 
Use of Reproduction Story. Hillegas and Harvard- 
Newton Scales. Kansas Silent Reading Test. Starch 
Test. Thorndike Visual Vocabulary and Scale Alpha. 

VIII. Course of Study and Time Schedule .... 94 

Curriculum Aims. Time Distribution in Fifty Cities. 
Massachusetts and New Jersey Time Distribution. 

IX. The School as a Social and Community Center 113 

Importance of Socialized Activities. Evening Schools 
and Social Centers in Boston. Use of School Buildings 
in Cleveland and Montclair. Costs of such Activities. 
Social Worker. 

X. School Buildings 124 

Pohcy in Building Programs. Strayer Score Card for 
School Buildings. Building Costs. Complexity of Prob- 
lem. 

XL School Hygiene 143 

Prevalence of Physical Defects. Value of School Nurse. 
Medical Staff Required. Ratio of Children to Doctor 
and Nurse. Cost of Inspection. Provision for Atypical 
Children. Equipment of Open Air Classrooms. Main- 
tenance. Checking List for Sanitary Survey. 

XII. School Finance 153 

Reasons for Increase in School Expenses. Determination 
of AbiUty of City to Spend for Schools. Real Wealth and 
Rates of Taxation. Per Capita Expenditures. Per- 
centage of Total Tax Devoted to Schools. Distribution 
of City Expenditures. Division of Available School 
Funds. Amounts per Capita for Various Items in the 
Budget. Comparative Cost of High School Subjects. 

XIII. Planning for Future Needs 190 

Necessity of a Building Policy. Population Growth. 
Ratio of Children to Population. Percentage of Children 
in School. Relative Number in Elementary and High 
School. 



CONTENTS ix 

XIV. Statistical Interpretation 205 

Necessity for Interpretation of Data. Principles of Tabu- 
lation. Minumim List of Essential Statistical Terms and 
their Meaning. Application to Specific Problems. 

XV. Graphical Representation 228 

Importance of Charts. Principles of Construction. 
Curves of Normal Distribution. Use of Graph Paper. 
Various Types of Charts. 

XVI. Survey Outline 249 

Bibliography 257 

Index 260 



ILLUSTRATIVE CHARTS 

PAGE 

Map of Montclair 7 

Relation of School Centers 9 

Organization Scheme 14 

Relation of Local Teachers to all Others 24 

Period of Service in per Cents 26 

Pupil Distribution in 386 Cities 39 

Degree of Acceleration and Retardation in Salt Lake City . . 48 

Derivation of Median 216 

Probable Error Curves 226 

Typical Curves Normal Distribution 232 

Non-promotion 234 

Vertical Columns Attached 235 

Horizontal Bars Alternating Black and White 236 

Vertical Columns Separated 237 

Sectors of Circle Showing Magnitude 238 

School Maintenance compared with Total Tax 240 

Overlapping of Grades 242, 243 

Use of Color-Spot-Chart 244 

Degree of Acceleration and Retardation 245 



LIST OF TABLES 

PAGE 

Population Census of 1910 Showing Nativity 10 

School Attendance All Ages 10 

Attendance Data Children 6-14 years U 

Size of Board 16 

Pupils per Supervisory Officer 20 

Relative Number of Supervisors, Teachers, and Pupils .... 21 

Ratio of Supervisors to Teachers and Pupils in New Jersey ... 21 

Relative Number Men and Women Employed 22 

Typical Organization City of 27,000 Population 22 

Professional Preparation of Teachers 24 

Tenure of Service 25 

Years of Teaching Experience 26 

Salaries of Teachers in Thirty-three Cities 28, 29 

Salaries and Allowance for Absence Thirty-three Cities ... 29 

Median Salaries in Fourteen Cities 30 

Comparison of Teacher Salaries with those of Other Employees 3 1 

Cleveland Census and Enrollment 36 

Enrollment and School Census, Butte 36 

Attendance and Census Enumeration, Springfield 37 

Percentage of Enrollment in Each Grade 41 

Percentage each Age is of Total Enrollment 41 

Percentage of Beginners in Grades VIII and XII 43 

Percentage of Attendance in New Jersey 44 

Distribution of Attendance by Days , 45 

Age and Grade and Age and Progress 47 

Acceleration and Retardation in Butte 49 

Extent of Retardation, Rockford 49 

Retardation in Passaic and La Crosse 49 

Causes of Retardation in Indiana 51 

Percentage of Non-promotion by Grades 52 

Failure by Studies in Butte 53 

xi 



xii LIST OF TABLES 

Percentage of Total Failures by Grades and Subject, Cleveland 53 

High School Failures Fourteen New Jersey Cities 54 

Failure by Subject Forty High Schools, Ohio 55 

Average Size Classes Twenty-two Cities 56 

Size of Classes by Grades 57 

Average Number Pupils per Teacher, Eleven Cities 57 

Class Size, Twenty-five Cities Middle West 58 

Pupil Quota in Massachusetts High Schools 59 

Size of High School Classes, Nineteen Cities 59 

Enrollment per Teacher in New Jersey 60 

Length of Teaching Week in Central West 60 

Variability in Rating Penmanship 66 

Typical Distribution Penmanship Scores 68 

Penmanship Standards 70 

Relative Value of Scores with Three Scales 70 

Size of Vocabulary by Eighths 71 

Spelling Attainments, Ayres Scale 72 

Distribution of Spelling Scores, New Orleans ........ 73 

Relative Spelling Efficiency, Native and Foreign Children ... 73 

Elementary School Records "One Hundred Demons" .... 74 

High School Record "One Hundred Demons" 74 

Scores with Buckingham Test 74 

Courtis Standard Scores Series A 76 

Results of Courtis Test Series A 77 

Courtis Standard Scores Series B 78 

Median State Scores, Courtis Tests Series B 79 

Median City Scores, Courtis Tests Series B 80, 81 

Results, Stone Reasoning Test 81 

Composition Results, Rice Test 83 

Resulting Scores Reproduction Test 86 

Records Hillegas Scale 87 

Distribution of Hillegas Scores by Grades 87 

Composition Achievements, Harvard-Newton Scale 88 

Median Scores Kansas Silent Reading Test 89 

Speed and Comprehension, Starch Tests 90 

Rate of Reading, Courtis Test 91 

Memory Test Medians, Courtis 92 

Median Scores, Thorndike's Visual Vocabulary 92 



LIST OF TABLES xiii 

Median Scores, Thorndike's Scale Alpha 93 

Time Allowance, Reading, Fifty Cities 97 

Time Allowance, Spelling, Fifty Cities 99 

Time Allowance, Writing, Fifty Cities ■ , 100 

Time Allowance, English, Fifty Cities 100 

Time Allowance, Mathematics, Fifty Cities 101 

Time Allowance, History, Fifty Cities 102 

Time Allowance, Geography, Fifty Cities 103 

Time Allowance, Drawing, Fifty Cities 104 

Time Allowance, Industrial Arts, Fifty Cities 105 

Time Allowance, Physical Education, Fifty Cities 107 

Time Allowance, Music, Fifty Cities 108 

Percentage of Total Time each Subject, Fifty Cities 109 

Massachusetts Time Distribution 110 

New Jersey Time Distribution Ill 

Home Study per Week 112 

Boston Evening Schools Attendance Data 114 

Comparative Cost Evening Schools 115 

Evening Schools Enrollment and Attendance 116 

Use of School Buildings in Cleveland 117 

Attendance at Boston Social Centers 119 

Use of School Buildings in Montclair 119,121 

Montclair Evening School Attendance Data 120 

Activities of Social Worker, Montclair 122 

Rating of School Buildings, Montclair 133 

Comparative Rating of School Buildings, St Paul 134 

Cost Data for School Buildings in Boston 136 

Cost Data for School Buildings in Cleveland 136 

Cost Data for School Buildings in Detroit 137 

Cost Data for School Buildings in Newark 137 

Cost Data for School Buildings in St. Louis 138 

Cost Data, Forty-six Buildings, Five Cities 138 

Cost Data, Seventy-two High Schools 139 

Percentage Physical Defects City and Country Children . , . 144 

Ratio of Children to Doctor and Nurse 146 

Schedule of Salaries for Physicians and Nurses 146 

Open Air Class Costs, Four Cities 148, 149 

Sanitary Survey Checking List 150 



xiv LIST OF TABLES 

Expenditures per $1000 of Wealth, Eighteen Cities 154 

Real Wealth for each Dollar of School Maintenance 155 

Comparative Tax in Mills for School Maintenance 156 

Wealth and School per Capita Expenditure 157 

School Expenditure and School Population 158 

Per Capita Cost for City and School Maintenance 159 

Total Maintenance Cost and per Cent for Schools 160 

Distribution of Expenditures, Sixteen Western Cities .... 161 

Distribution of Expenditures, Thirty-seven Cities 161 

Percentage Distribution of City Expenses 162 

Percentage Distribution of Expenses, Ten Cities 163 

Maintenance and Improvement Costs per Capita 163 

Distribution of School Expenses, Sixteen Cities 165 

Distribution of School Expenses, Twelve Cities 165 

Distribution of Expenses between High and Elementary Schools 166 

Comparative Expenditures Elementary and High Schools , . 167 

Classified Expenditure per Child, Eighteen Cities 169 

Per Capita and Percentage Distribution by Items, Elementary 

and High Schools, Seventeen Cities 170-184 

Cost per Pupil Textbooks in United States 185 

Cost per Pupil for Stationary and Supplies in United States . 185 

Cost per Pupil for Textbooks and Supplies, in Pennsylvania . . 185 

Cost per Pupil, Various Items, Springfield 186 

Miscellaneous Items Cost per Pupil, Three Cities 186 

Fuel Costs by Schools, Montclair 187 

Comparative Costs of High School Subjects 188 

Relative Cost of Instruction by Departments 188 

New York City Population Growth 192 

Population Increase New York and Suburbs 193 

New Jersey Population Growth 193 

Montclair Population and Growth 194 

Assumed Montclair Growth to 1940 195 

Ward Population and Number Families in Montclair .... 195 

School Attendance, all Ages, Selected Cities 196 

Montclair School Attendance, 1910 197 

Relation School Population to Total Population 198 

Percentage of Total Enrollment in Elementary Grades .... 198 

Distribution of Pupils by Wards 200 



LIST OF TABLES xv 

Enrollment in Elementary, Junior High, and Senior High 

Schools 201 

Assumed Distribution in 1940 202, 203 

Frequency Table of Dice Throwing 231 

Distribution of Penmanship Scores 235 

Occupations in Detroit and Los Angeles 236 

Withdrawal from School 238 

Comparison of Tax Rate for Schools with Total Tax Rate . . 240 

Results of Test for Overlapping Grades 241 

Scores in Stone Reasoning Test 246 



INTRODUCTION 

Efficiency in any line of human endeavor depends 
upon our ability to evaluate the results which are 
secured. No one would question that progress has 
been made in education during the past hundred years, 
but one may very justly inquire what measure of effi- 
ciency has been secured from the money spent and 
from the effort and devotion of those engaged in teach- 
ing. In mercantile pursuits it has been noted that 
seven out of every ten failures can be charged directly 
to a lack of knowledge of facts. Such an investigation 
as we have had in education tends to prove that a like 
situation is to be found in this field. The failures in 
education, whether arising from a lack of economical 
use of funds, from an inefficient system of organization, 
or from an unintelligent practice in method, are, on 
the whole, not to be charged to an absence of devotion 
m the part of those who have given their lives to the 
' ools, but until it is possible to measure the results 

•ieved, the cause, and the degree, of the failures 
lot be established. 

it is undeniable that real progress is made by the 

^cess of trial and error, both in the art of teaching 
in the practice of administration. That we shall 

v^e to depend in considerable measure upon demon- 
tion as a means of bringing about improvement in 

rrent educational practice must also be admitted, 

xvii 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

but it is none the less true that scientific work in edu- 
cation will furnish the basis for the more rapid elimi- 
nation of mistakes and will point the way to improved 
organization of teaching. The science of education 
will, in its development, occupy the same relative 
position to teaching that the science of medicine occu- 
pies to the art of heahng. The progress of the past 
twenty-five years in farming would never have been 
possible without the scientific work which has been 
done in agriculture. 

Aside from the fact that we are only beginning to 
have a profession of education, many other elements 
have delayed progress in standardizing our work through 
accurate measurement of the results achieved. One 
of the most comforting of the fallacies which are some- 
times brought forward to oppose the attempt to 
measure results is the popular behef that the only 
criterion for judging school work is the ultimate success 
of the individuals who have been subjected to it. The 
most inefficient teacher, in the most poorly equipped 
school, if his period of service has been long enough 
can point to the success of a few boys who once attended 
that particular school as proof of the adequacy of the 
work which is now being done. The failures are never 
brought to mind. To select a group of individuals 
who, because of native abihty and favorable environ- 
ment which has no direct relation to the school, achieve 
distinction, and to claim that their success is due to 
our system of education, may be satisfying to our pride 
but cannot appeal to our judgment. The only avail- 
able measure of the work done in any school is the 
change brought about in boys and girls, young men 



INTROBUCTION xix 

and young women, during the period of their school 
Hfe. 

It has been claimed, also, that the most precious 
element of education cannot be measured. Those who 
advance this argument speak vaguely in terms of ''at- 
mosphere", "spirit", and the like. Two replies may 
be made to this contention. One is that any power 
which the teacher has, whether it is called influence 
or ability to teach arithmetic, must produce some 
change in the children who are taught. Another, equally 
valid, answer is the fact that the best teachers of arith- 
metic, literature, geography, history, or other studies, 
are, at the same time, the teachers whose influence in 
the school we value most. 

We have been hopeful that the sciences of biology, 
sociology, and economics would eventually solve the 
problems of education. That the work done in these 
fields is essential to the development of a scientific 
standard in education cannot be questioned, and no 
one is fully equipped to undertake investigation in the 
latter field without preliminary training in these funda- 
mental sciences. Nevertheless, except for the fact 
that such competent investigators have attacked the 
problems directly rather than through the work of the 
biologist, psychologist, sociologist, or economist, our 
progress must have been slow indeed. 

Many who are unacquainted with modern statistical 
methods as applied in the social sciences have felt that 
it was impossible to measure large groups of individ- 
uals who differ in ability, in interest, and in environ- 
ment. It may be confidently asserted, however, that 
the measurement of a large group is more satisfactory 



XX INTRODUCTION 

than the attempt to measure a single individual. With 
regard to ability in school subjects we can be more sure 
of the accuracy of our results in comparing two groups, 
of a thousand each, than we could in the attempt to 
measure accurately two individual children. 

A very persistent objection to the measuring of 
results comes from those who feel that it is unfair to 
compare individuals or groups existing under different 
conditions. They would claim, for example, that we 
cannot compare children in spelling abihty when one 
group comes from homes in which the English language 
is spoken, while the other hears only a foreign language 
at home. This objection is probably due to a belief 
that the measurement will disregard the growth or 
development which has characterized the groups. In 
reality, if we measure achievements in spelling, the 
attempt is to determine the changes which have been 
brought about in any group, in terms of units which 
are comparable. If group one shows ability ten, hav- 
ing advanced during the year from ability seven, its 
progress will be considered just as satisfactory as that 
made by group two, which has moved from ability 
eight to ability eleven. In other words, the purpose 
of measurement is never to impose an arbitrary uni- 
formity. It is, rather, to discover differences and the 
reason for their existence, and, most of all, to give us 
some adequate means of estimating progress or change. 

Let us suppose, again, in a matter of business admin- 
istration, that one school shows a much higher per 
capita cost than another. This does not prove that 
one school is more efficiently managed than the other. 
What it does do is to suggest that some adequate reason 



INTRODUCTION xxi 

be found for the difference which exists. In like manner, 
one city may show a much higher cost for janitors' 
salaries than does another. This stimulates investi- 
gation, but it does not prove that the city with the 
higher cost is inefficiently managed or is extravagant 
in its expenditures. It may be that the one which 
spends a relatively large amount for janitorial service 
actually gets more per dollar for its money than does 
the one with the smaller cost. It is always the purpose 
of measurement to discover discrepancies and to raise 
problems. 

On the ground that the scientific study of education 
is significant only in so far as it has to do with a careful 
investigation of the processes involved in growth, it 
has been contended that the derivation of scales or 
units of measurement is unnecessary. Those who make 
this contention seem to feel that a thorough study of 
the way in which children form habits and grow in power 
of reasoning or ability to appreciate will determine 
absolutely the methods to be employed in teaching. 
The difficulty with this point of view is that human 
beings, even though they be trained in investigation, 
are fallible. The only final test of the success of any 
method, however carefully derived from a knowledge 
of the processes involved in growth in a particular 
aspect of mental life, is the result achieved. Theoret- 
ically a method may seem perfect, and yet [in terms of 
the results secured it may prove to be a failure. ^^ Thus, 
the accurate measurement of results gives us our only 
certainty that we have chosen the right method for 
bringing about any particular type of mental growth 
or development. 



xxii INTRODUCTION 

Possibly the one element which, more than any other, 
has retarded the movement to secure accurate measure- 
ment of results is the tendency in education to appeal 
to authority and the corresponding lack of devotion to 
scientific inquiry. To accept the opinion of those who 
have had experience in the field is, of course, much the 
easiest way to meet a problem, and no one would deny 
the value of the judgment of our great educational 
leaders, but these very men would be the last to place 
their own opinions in opposition to the results obtained 
from a scientific study. Indeed, it is in no small meas- 
ure due to their insistence that we are beginning to have 
adequate investigations of our educational practice. 

In administration there has already been a really 
effective study of costs both with regard to the rela- 
tion of expenditure for education to other expenditures, 
and to the question of the proper distribution of state 
school funds. We may hope for much more signifi- 
cant work in this field as more adequate systems of 
accounting are introduced and more satisfactory re- 
ports are issued. It is noteworthy that in those school 
systems where an attempt has been made to study the 
expenditures remarkable savings have been made. • In 
many lines we have not yet determined what is the 
lowest limit of expenditure consistent with the main- 
tenance of our present efficiency. Much work has 
been done on problems of organization of schools, and 
yet the question of retardation and elimination will 
be satisfactorily treated only as we secure more accu- 
rate records of attendance, scholarship, health, promo- 
tions, and demotions. These are becoming available 
from the statistics now kept in our more progressive 



INTRODUCTION xxiii 

school systems. The problems of departmental work 
and individual instruction can never be solved until 
we measure accurately what is secured under different 
systems of organization. 

Superintendent Bliss has given us in this book a 
manual which will be of very great help to the super- 
intendent of schools who wishes to attack his problems 
in a scientific manner. He has brought together from 
his own practice and from the field of school surveys 
and investigations in educational administration, the 
methods which can be most satisfactorily employed 
in checking up the work of a school system. He has 
dealt with the problems of attendance, classification 
and progress of children, with the financing of the school 
system, with the necessity for a building program, with 
the technique of measuring the achievements of pupils, 
and many other questions which are continually before 
the superintendent for solution. Throughout the book 
he has presented the case just as the superintendent 
of schools has to meet it from day to day. The method 
of attacking each of the problems has been described 
with such directness and simplicity as to make it avail- 
able even for those who have had little special training 
in administration. 

When those who are responsible for the administra- 
tion of public education determine their policies and 
alter their practices in the light of such precise and 
complete knowledge as can be had by following the 
methods proposed in this book, we may confidently 
claim that the scientific attitude has prevailed. Those 
who support our schools by the payment of taxes are 
beginning to insist that we reach those standards of 



xxiv INTRODUCTION 

efficiency which are becoming common in commercial 
and industrial pursuits. Scientific management is as 
necessary for those who would be efficient in educational 
administration as is skill in the art of teaching for those 
who would instruct children. 

George Drayton Strayer 



METHODS AND STANDARDS 

FOR 

LOCAL SCHOOL SURVEYS 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY 

Criticism of his most cherished institutions is regarded 
by the average American citizen as an inalienable right, 
and the severity of his arraignment is usually propor- 
tionate to his interest in the object of his censure. No 
institution receives sharper criticism from its supporters 
than the public schools, in spite of the fact that the Ameri- 
can people are thoroughly committed to the public school 
idea and the passage of years has only served to increase 
its hold upon the country. It would seem that this devo- 
tion to the educational ideal in America is so complete 
that nothing short of perfection is acceptable, and every 
decade witnesses departures from the beaten track, which 
sometimes prove to be mere fads, but in most cases must 
be construed as honest attempts to find a more effective 
method of educational procedure. 

Among recent developments in education none bears 
greater evidence of a real desire to know and remedy de- 
fects than does the so-called school survey, conducted by 
a group of professional educators and practical school 
men. The theory has been that this impartial body of 



2 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

investigators can, by visiting schools and applying cer- 
tain well recognized standards, determine the relative 
efficiency of any school system. Even a superficial ex- 
amination of the reports of the various school surveys 
shows that this assumption contains a certain measure 
of truth, although the Kmitations under which such a 
group of experts must work are obvious. The activi- 
ties of a school are so varied and the results are so subtle 
that the brief time usually allotted to the investigation 
fails to reveal the effects of many of the local school con- 
ditions which are perhaps of supreme importance. 

The general educational sentiment of a community 
cannot be determined by a cursory inspection, and no 
superficial examination can show whether the school de- 
partment receives the moral support of its constituency. 
The professional attitude of the teachers, the altruistic 
spirit in which they devote themselves to their work, and 
the extent to which they cooperate with the school 
officials can be known only after a long and intimate 
connection with the schools. It is possible for very expe- 
rienced school men to be deceived by surface indications, 
since teachers, for reasons of prudence, are careful to say 
little of their personal attitude toward those with whom 
they are associated. So important are these facts, and 
so vital to an adequate understanding of conditions, that 
a new superintendent in a city with a population of no 
more than twenty or thirty thousand should devote a 
large part of his first year to familiarizing himself with his 
local environment. If this is true of a small community, 
it applies with even greater force to the larger city, and 
the keenest spectator ah extra can scarcely hope to cover 
the ground thoroughly in a few weeks. 



INTRODUCTORY 3 

Another factor militating against the efficacy of a 
general survey is the pride which a community inevitably 
has in its own school system. Readers of the report 
made by the investigating staff are prone to feel that the 
defects of the local schools have been magnified and 
many of their virtues overlooked. This condition is 
greatly exaggerated when the survey- is instituted by one 
faction in a deliberate attempt to discredit another. Too 
often, surveys have originated in a desire on the part of 
the school board to secure such information as will justify 
them in the eyes of the community for the dismissal of 
the superintendent. Under these conditions the friends 
of the accused official naturally rally to his support, and 
the effects of the resulting contest persist long after its 
actual causes are forgotten. School efficiency is pecul- 
iarly dependent upon the spirit which permeates the 
system, and only as a last resort should the friends of the 
schools begin a controversy which is sure to result in 
more or less injury to the children. The pages of cur- 
rent educational literature bear ample testimony to the 
injurious effects of school surveys inaugurated for the 
purpose of verifying a priori opinions. 

Without question the principle of school surveys is 
fundamentally sound. The school superintendent, busied 
with the details of administration, tends to lose the proper 
perspective of his work, and long-continued contact with 
inefficiency and indifference develop a mental astigma- 
tism which it would seem must be corrected by the judg- 
ment of a person less habituated to the presence of such 
weaknesses; but strong as these tendencies are, they 
need not operate to prevent a clear understanding of the 
local situation. Given a superintendent with an ade- 



4 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

quate professional training, alert to the recent develop- 
ments of educational theory and practice, in touch with 
conditions in the most progressive school systems, and 
resolved to bring his own schools to a high level of efh- 
ciency, it is reasonable to assume that he can do all that 
could be accomplished by any board of experts, and in 
addition, because of his familiarity with his schools, can 
obtain results impossible to the most impartial body of 
investigators. Freed from the opposition of those who 
are unwilling to recognize the existence of facts deroga- 
tory to the local schools, he is in a position to conduct 
an inquiry which will reveal actual conditions. Having 
discovered the facts, the superintendent can formulate 
a policy to correct existing faults and, with the exercise 
of reasonable tact, secure the cooperation of teachers and 
pubKc in carrying out his plans. 

Such a method as this avoids the undesirable public- 
ity which accompanies the work of an imported board 
of professional experts and leaves the way clear for the 
accomplishment of necessary and desired reforms. This, 
after all, is the chief consideration. It is of little value 
to discover weaknesses unless steps are taken to remedy 
them. We have reached the point in our educational 
philosophy where we must apply to our theory the test 
of accomplishment. We measure a man in terms of 
achievement; to require of the schools the same ability 
to produce results is only logical and reasonable. 

One difficulty in the way of a campaign for self-im- 
provement based upon the facts shown by self -analysis, 
is lack of sufficient records of professional experience in 
this field so collated as to furnish available standards 
for the superintendent's use. It is true that current 



INTRODUCTORY 5 

educational literature contains reports of investigations 
and studies by progressive school men, but, isolated as 
they are, they do not provide a definite chart for the 
would-be local surveyor. 

If this book helps to give an impetus to local studies, 
its purpose is served. It is the result of several years of 
experience in the study of local school conditions. So 
far as practicable, illustrations are drawn from specific 
towns and cities because of the conviction that records 
of concrete situations are more suggestive than a pres- 
entation made in general terms. Reports of various 
important surveys and those undertaken by superintend- 
ents of schools for their own communities, as well as the 
different studies made by the .writer, have been drawn 
upon freely for the comparative statistics presented. In 
stating the results of standard tests employed, the actual 
method of giving the tests is omitted, since these direc- 
tions are now available for general distribution. 



CHAPTER II 
GENERAL CONDITIONS 

The first requirement in the consideration of any 
question is the setting of the problem. As a preKminary 
to the study of the details of any school system it will be 
of material assistance to construct an outline map of the 
city, showing the areas of the school districts, the loca- 
tion of the school buildings, and the grades they are 
designed to accommodate. Transportation facilities 
should be included as a pertinent factor. A map of this 
character shows whether the buildings are so placed as 
to serve their respective districts advantageously and 
indicates, in a general way, the probable future enroll- 
ment of the schools. It may reveal mistakes in the pre- 
vious selection of school sites and furnish convincing 
evidence that wisdom demands restricting the size of 
certain buildings to their present capacity and providing 
for future growth by means of a second building in a more 
strategic location. 

The map at the top of the following page, showing an 
area of approximately 5.7 square miles, represents con- 
ditions in a town of 25,000 inhabitants, and the location 
of its nine school buildings. 

Transportation facilities of a reasonably adequate 
character are afforded by the trolley Hne extending ap- 
proximately north and south the entire length of the 

6 



GENERAL CONDITIONS 




Districts numbered from i to 8. 

A — Junior High School and Elementary School Center. 
C — Senior and Junior High School Center. 
H — Junior High School and Elementary School Center. 
B, D, E, F, G, and / — Elementary School Centers. 

town. Three junior high schools, located in the north, 
center, and south central sections, provide for all pupils 
in grades seven to nine. These are fed from elementary 
schools and in turn send their pupils to the senior high 
school at the geographical center of the town. Such an 
arrangement of buildings frees primary children from the 
necessity of walking unreasonable distances and at the 
same time furnishes the concentration of older pupils 
which is essential to a plan of organization involving a 
differentiated course of study. 

The district in the northern end of the town is at present 
sparsely settled, making it necessary to require many 
pupils to travel comparatively long distances. As the 
population becomes more congested, a primary school 
will be erected in the northeastern section of the district. 
This will be limited to the first six grades, with direct 
promotion to the present school at A. District 2 is 



8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

now served by a single primary building at B. Compara- 
tively few pupils come from the western section of this 
district, but, with the certain growth in population, a 
second primary school will be located on the opposite side 
of the trolley line. Future building plans contemplate 
the development of an additional junior high school at /, 
which will serve that section adequately. District 6 is 
the Italian section and is the most crowded of all. The 
impossibility of securing a site near the center forced the 
location of the school on the extreme eastern boundary. 
Such a location is generally unwise, but in this instance 
the small size of the district makes it less objectionable 
than would otherwise be the case. 

Summarizing this detailed statement, we find three 
distinct types of schools in the scheme of organization: 
(a) Elementary, including grades I-VI; (h) Junior High 
School, grades VII-IX; {c) Senior High School, grades 
X-XII. The buildings are so placed that small children 
are cared for in their immediate district. Promotion is 
made to the junior schools, where large numbers are 
essential to the effective organization of the departmental 
teaching with differentiated courses of study. These 
intermediate schools are well distributed to serve the 
different sections of the town. 

The general plan of organization is represented graph- 
ically in the accompanying chart. The diagram shows 
the relations of the various centers to each other. 

The location of the dift'erent schools makes it possible 
to group in the respective buildings comparatively dis- 
tinct types of children, and because of this homogeneous 
character of the classes the needs of each group can be 
effectively met. Obviously a group of Italians or negroes 



GENERAL CONDITIONS g 

whose education, because of economic conditions at home, 
is Hmited to the compulsory school period, needs a 
curriculum sharply differentiated from that for a group of 



12 

11 

10 
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8 
7 
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Plan of Organization. 

Dotted lines — Prospective Conditions. 

Double lines — Temporary Conditions. 

Solid, Single, and Double lines — Present Conditions. 

Single and Dotted lines — Ultimate Conditions. 



W K 



2 -^ 



children from homes of wealth, who are Kkely to continue 
their studies in colleges or professional schools. In only 
one building, H, are the different types mingled to any 
considerable extent. . 

The general character of the problem to be solved in 
any community is indicated by the following table. 



lo METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
Population, Census of 1910 



^., Ti If Native Born Native Born Foreign t.t 

City Population Native Parents Foreign Parents Born Negroes 

Pasadena, Cal 30,291 62.8% 19.4% 14.2% 2.5% 

Topeka, Kan 43,684 63.6 16.4 9.5 10.4 

Des Moines, Iowa. .. . 86,368 62.3 22.3 12 3.4 

Montclair, N.J 21,550 42 23 24 11 

Brookline, Mass 27,792 41.8 27.3 30 .8 

Newton, Mass 39.806 40.9 29.7 28.1 1.2 

Yonkers, N.Y 79,803 27.1 37.5 33.3 1.9 

E. Orange, N.J 34,371 53.1 24.7 16.5 5.5 

The extent to which the public school is fulfilling its 
mission to educate all of the children of the community 
is indicated roughly by the ratio between population and 
school attendance. The United States census returns, 
which are carefully supervised and are presumably ac- 
curate for any community, provide statistics for 1910 
giving the distribution of population in each town or city 

School Attendance, All Ages, 1910 

City Population School Population Per Cent 

Albany, N.Y 100,235 16,023 16 

Chester, Pa 38,537 5,979 15.5 

Elizabeth, N.J 73,409 12,774 17.4 

Hartford, Conn 98,915 18,951 19.2 

Maiden, Mass 44,404 8,983 20.2 

Montclair, N.J 21,550 3,758 17.4 

New Britain, Conn.... 43,916 8,465 19.3 

Newton, Mass 39,806 8,427 21.2 

Salem, Mass 43,697 8,588 19.6 

York, Pa 44,750 7,529 16.8 

within the following age limits: under six years, six to 
nine years inclusive, ten to fourteen years inclusive, 
fifteen to seventeen years inclusive, and eighteen to 



GENERAL CONDITIONS ii 

twenty years inclusive, and also the percentage of the 
population from these classes attending school. Ten 
representative cities are selected as a basis for comparison. 

Even more significant is the question of the actual 
attendance of children within the compulsory school age, 
in its relation to the number of children of the same age 
living in the given community. 

The following table indicates the comparative per- 
centage of children 6-14 years actually in school and the 
total number of children of the indicated age living in 
the city. 

Attendance Data, Children 6-14 

r:.„ 1910 Pop. Pop. 6-14 Per Cent Per Cent 

^^^y Total Pop. 6-14 in School (2) of (1) (3) of (1) 

Albany, N.Y 100,253 13,380 11,824 13.3 11.8 

Chester, Pa 38,537 5,942 4,954 15.4 12.8 

Elizabeth, N.J 73,409 12,182 10,597 16.6 14.4 

Hartford, Conn 98,915 14,673 13,957 14.8 14 

Maiden, Mass 44,404 7,484 6,918 16.8 15.6 

Montclair, N.J 21,550 3,078 2,795 14.3 13 

New Britain, Conn 43,916 7,085 6,626 16.1 15.2 

Newton, Mass 39,806 6,001 5,743 15.1 14.4 

Salem, Mass 43,697 7,007 6,581 16 15.1 

York, Pa 44,750 7,047 6,247 15.7 13.9 

Totals and Percentages. 549,237 83,879 76,242 15.4 14.09 

It occasionally happens that the character of the popu- 
lation in a city leads to the assumption that the variation 
in school attendance is due to the indifference of foreign 
born parents to the opportunities for an education offered 
by the schools. Such an inference is not justified by the 
facts, as in many instances these people are more eager 
to secure an education for their children than are native 
born Americans. 



CHAPTER III 
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 

A STUDY of the published reports of the surveys made 
in different sections of the country shows clearly that the 
organization of many school systems prevents efficient 
administration. While the superintendent is nominally 
the head of the system, in actual practice many of his 
functions are assumed by committees of the Board of 
Education. As a consequence, responsibility is divided 
and valuable time is wasted in making adjustments on a 
personal basis. The situation is further complicated by 
the creation of a business department entirely separate 
from the superintendent and charged with the care of 
the buildings and the purchase of school supplies. As an 
inevitable result, this department assumes the decision 
of many questions materially affecting the educational 
interests of the schools. 

Such a plan as this is wrong in principle. Schools are 
maintained for the sake of educating children and not 
for the sake of transacting business. The division of 
authority, with a consequent waste of energy and loss of 
efficiency, may be obviated by making the superin- 
tendent the real head of the system in fact as well as in 
name. Authority and responsibility must be commen- 
surate. 

Such a concentration of power in the hands of the super- 
intendent does not mean that the Board of Education 

12 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 13 

will have nothing to do. Since they represent the public, 
the Board of Education must play a conspicuous part in 
all questions of fundamental school policy, such as de- 
cisions respecting the type of education the schools are 
to furnish, the amount of money to be appropriated for 
maintenance, the location of school buildings and the 
character of their construction; but the outlining of 
courses of study, the choice of textbooks, decisions relative 
to competency of instruction, the selection and assignment 
of teachers and janitors are matters of expert judgment, 
and any attempt at Board direction of these problems is 
certain to result in confusion and in positive detriment to 
school efficiency. 

It is foolish to pay 'good salaries to professional experts 
and then refuse to accept their judgment. An illustra- 
tion of this pernicious policy occurred recently in an 
eastern city. The Board were impressed with the value 
of pupil self-government, and, contrary to the advice of 
superintendent and principal, directed that the responsi- 
bility for the government of all study halls in the high 
school should be immediately intrusted to the pupils 
themselves. As no preparatory training for this re- 
sponsibility was given, a state of chaos arose and it re- 
quired several months of strenuous effort on the part of 
the teachers and principal to eliminate the results of this 
ill-advised action. 

A community is truly fortunate when the Board is 
made up of men who, being accustomed to the direction 
of large enterprises, recognize the need of applying the 
principles of good corporation organization to the educa- 
tional affairs of the town. Such men assume the position 
of a board of directors for a large corporation, giving the 



14 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



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ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 15 

executive officers of the school authority similar to that 
vested by corporations in their presidents and managers. 
This is as it should be. So long as the schools prosper 
and their management is reasonably economical, there is 
no just cause to interfere with details. When these con- 
ditions cease to exist, the obvious remedy is a change in 
administrative officers, and not an attempt to assume 
their duties. 

The principles outlined above appear in the preceding 
graphic illustration. 

During the last two decades there has been a tendency 
in city school organization to create small Boards of Edu- 
cation, limited to five or seven members, none of whom is 
ex officio. A Board of this size, elected from the city at 
large, or appointed by the mayor or the city commission, 
provides an effective working body. Experience has 
proved that such a Board is in every way more satisfac- 
tory than the Boards of from ten to forty-six members, 
occasionally found. The real work of a large Board is 
usually done by a small group of half a dozen men, while 
the energies of the other members are directed to the 
formation of cliques and factions which tend seriously 
to embarrass the school department. 

In his admirable book on School Administration, Dr. 
Cubberley gives the following table of the frequency of 
size of school boards throughout the country, as found in 
fifty cities of the United States, with a population of over 
100,000 inhabitants in 1910. 

An important factor in the administration of any enter- 
prise is continuity of policy. This is secured by a Board of 
five members having a five-year term of office and so 
appointed that each year brings a possible change of only 



i6 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

one member. A desirable feature of the organization of 
so small a Board is the ehmination of all standing com- 
mittees. Thus every question of importance receives 
the consideration of the entire membership, and as a direct 
consequence of this policy the executive officers assume the 
mass of routine and detailed work which properly belongs 
to them and leave the Board free to devote its attention 



Size of Board 


Number of Cities 





1 


3 


1 


4 


1 


5 


15 


6 


1 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


3 


14 


2 


15 


3 


18 




21 




30 




33 




46 





to a discussion of those larger policies of administration 
which are essential to a wise development of the school 
system. 

Another direct result of the scheme of organization 
outlined above is the recognition of the principle of a unit 
rather than a dual plan of school administration. The 
responsibility for the entire management of the business 
and educational interests of the schools is vested in a 
superintendent on whose recommendation is appointed 
an assistant superintendent who is in entire sympathy 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 17 

with the general policies prevailing in the schools. The 
assistant may be also the regularly appointed secretary of 
the Board of Education. An harmonious administration 
of the schools is thus secured, in strong contrast to the 
conflicts of authority inseparable from the dual organiza- 
tion prevalent in many cities. In actual practice, large 
discretion is left to the assistant superintendent, who is 
charged primarily with the conduct of the business affairs 
of the schools. Requisitions for supplies, routine repairs, 
and similar questions are determined on his own authority. 
Only in the event of a difference of opinion between him 
and other persons in the force would the matter be referred 
to the superintendent for final settlement. By this plan 
so much lost motion is eliminated that the assistant super- 
intendent has time for many questions of a purely profes- 
sional character. 

Economy of time is further effected by the policy of the 
Board with respect to small expenditures. The super- 
intendent's office is authorized to pay bills not exceeding 
$100 without referring them to the Board of Education 
for prior action. As these expenditures are reported in 
detail at the semi-monthly meetings of the Board, there 
is no danger of extravagance. 

The principles which form the basis of organization of 
the central office are carried into the respective schools. 
The principal is recognized as the head of his building, 
specifically charged with responsibility for its general 
care as well as for the discipline of the pupils and the 
character of the teaching in the classrooms. Teachers 
are encouraged to exercise initiative and independence, 
the ultimate consideration being the welfare of the pupils. 

Such a plan as this has one grave danger: the creation 



i8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

of separate schools with such a diversity of ideals as to 
impair the unity of purpose essential to a well-rounded 
school system. This can be prevented only by careful 
oversight from the central ofhce. At monthly cabinet 
meetings, attended by principals and supervisors, policies 
are discussed and general plans outlined. A frank and 
full expression of opinion is sought; ultra-radical ideas 
are modified by the criticism of associates, and the final 
policy is one to which all can subscribe. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE SUPERVISORY AND TEACHING STAFF 

A SCHOOL system is successful in so far as it brings out 
the best service the teachers can give, and leadership on 
the part of supervisors is a fundamental requirement in 
securing this most desirable result. 

Unless the number of supervisors is adequate, however, 
their entire energies will be absorbed in the routine work 
of their respective departments, and no time will remain 
for the intensive study of school problems and the for- 
mulation of constructive plans. Boards of Education 
desiring to restrict expenditures frequently pursue a 
penny wise policy in this respect which no large business 
firm would tolerate. ''Brains at the top" is one of the 
wisest possible investments, and in the long run is the 
cheapest. 

Supervision to be of true value must develop along 
lines of educational leadership. The narrow conception 
which limits it to duties of inspection and reporting, forces 
it to stifle growth instead of acting as a stimulant to per- 
sonal initiative on the part of the classroom teachers. 
Habits of constant reading and study, with resultant 
progress along professional lines, are essential to a super- 
visor, and so important is this attitude of mind that the 
value of any supervisory official to a school system can 
almost be determined by the extent to which he is giving 

19 



20 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

himself to the study of some original problem connected 
with his particular department. 

It is entirely possible to obtain definite information 
regarding the ratio between the number of supervisory 
officers and pupils. The following data are given in the 
report of the United States Commissioner of Education 
for 1912-1913: 



Number of Pupils in Average Daily Attendance for Each 
Supervisory Officer 



Western 
Cities 



Pupils per 
Supervisor 



Eastern 
Cities 



Pupils per 

Supervisor 



Colorado Springs, Col. 

Sacramento, Cal 

Pasadena, Cal 

San Diego, Cal 

Butte, Montana 



Ogden, Utah . . . . 
Tacoma, Wash. . . 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
San Jose, Cal. . . . 
Spokane, Wash. . 



San Francisco, Cal. . . 

Seattle, Wash 

Denver, Colo 

Berkeley, Cal 

Oakland, Cal 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Portland, Oregon . . . . 



208 
252 
262 
283 
296 

312 
331 
333 
365 
369 

397 
400 
423 
433 
445 

460 
513 



Trenton, N.J 

Troy, N.Y 

New Bedford, Mass. 
Des Moines, Iowa . . 
Youngstown, Ohio . . 



Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Kansas City, Mo. . . . 

Camden, N.J 

Albany, N.Y 

Duluth, Minn 



Omaha, Neb 

Yonkers, N.Y. . . . 
Dayton, Ohio. . . . 
Springfield, Mass. 
Lowell, Mass 



182 
227 
269 
291 
341 

359 
360 
371 

372 
381 

400 
445 
446 
464 
479 



Average . 
Median . 



358 
365 



Average . 
Median . 



359 
371 



In Public School Administration, Dr. Cubberley gives 
the distribution of the supervisory force in the various 
positions, grouping them according to the size of the 
cities. 



1517 


62,589 


203 


7,442 


74 


2,679 


38 


1,380 



THE SUPERVISORY AND TEACHING STAFF 21 

Enrollment and Supervision 

«;i"7P nf Mo of Average No. Average Average Average No. 

CitiS aties Sup'ts. and No. Su- No. Pupils 

Ass'ts. pervisors Teachers Enrolled 

Over 100,000 50 8.0 16.5 

25,000 to 100,000 183 1.2- 4.8 + 

10,000 to 25,000 374 1.1- 2.8- 

5,000 to 10,000 632 1.0+ 1.5- 

The relative number of pupils, supervisors, and teachers 
for a group of small school systems in New Jersey in 1916 
furnishes a standard for a superintendent in a community 
of corresponding type. 

Enrollment and Supervision in New Jersey 

Ratio of Super- Ratio of Super- 
Town Enrollment visors to visors to En- 
Teachers 1 rollment 

Belleville 2847 

Bloomfield 3933 

East Orange 7564 

Irvington 4225 

Montclair 4772 

Nutley 1967 

Orange 5366 

South Orange 1804 

West Orange 2699 ^ 

Median 3933 12.9 475 

Critics often point to the comparatively small propor- 
tion of men engaged in educational work and predict dire 
results from the feminization of the schools. The same 
group of New Jersey towns is used to show the relative 
proportion of men and women employed as teachers. 

^ Includes the superintendent and non-teaching principals. 



12.9 


475 


16.9 


492 


11.3 


378 


13.0 


528 


12 


262 


14.0 


492 


11.1 


383 


9.0 


258 


16.8 


540 



22 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Relative Nuiviber of Men and Women Employed 

Town Men Teachers Women Teachers Ratio Women to Men 

BeUeviUe 7 76 10.9 

Bloomfield 26 117 4.5 

East Orange 30 215 7.2 

Irvington 11 101 9.2 

Montclair ' 36 169 4.7 

Nutley 10 50 5 

Orange 28 141 5 

South Orange 10 60 6 

West Orange 9 75 8.3 

A typical organization in a city of 27,000 inhabitants 
with an enrollment of 5000 pupils is: 

1 Superintendent 

1 Secretary to Superintendent 

1 Primary Supervisor 

8 Non-teaching Principals 

1 Industrial Arts Supervisor 

9 Teaching assistants 

1 Supervisor of Physical Training 

6 Teaching assistants 
1 Music Supervisor 

1 Penmanship Supervisor 

38 Senior High School teachers 
30 Junior High School teachers 
85 Elementary teachers 
19 Kindergarten teachers 
7 Building clerks and substitute teachers 

2 Medical Inspectors 
2 School Nurses 

1 Attendance Officer and School Nurse 

Office Force 

1 Bookkeeper 

2 Stenographers and general clerks 

Mechanical Department 

1 Head Engineer in charge of buildings 

1 Carpenter 

1 Carpenter and Painter 

1 Electrician 



THE SUPERVISORY AND TEACHING STAFF 23 

The superintendent, in addition to college training, 
should have postgraduate work in education in some 
university. The primary supervisors likewise should 
have had courses along special lines in addition to the 
preliminary training in the college or normal school. A 
reasonable number of the junior high school positions 
should be filled with college trained teachers for the sake 
of the broad outlook afforded by such study, and in so far 
as funds permit, men should be secured for some of these 
positions. The ideal would be to have approximately one- 
half of the teachers men, but as a rule the salaries paid 
in the seventh and eighth grades will not be adequate to 
retain good men for any length of time. Nevertheless, 
the disadvantage resulting from a change of teachers may 
be accepted for the sake of a man's influence with adoles- 
cent boys and girls. 

No principle of school administration is more thoroughly 
established than the wisdom of recruiting the majority of 
the teaching force from sources of supply other than the 
local community. Tax-payers are prone to feel that 
salaried positions should go to local candidates, and pres- 
sure from influential citizens to secure this result is often 
difficult to withstand. If the home candidate's abiHty 
is equal or superior to that of the applicant from another 
town, there is no valid reason for refusing to make some 
concession to this demand, but the pernicious results of 
excessive inbreeding are too well known to allow its 
adoption as a general policy. The number of local teachers 
to be employed must be determined by existing circum- 
stances, and no hard and fast rule can be formulated. 
In some instances salary schedules are too low to attract 
good teachers from other school systems. Such a con- 



24 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

dition makes it wise to offer appointments to local teachers 
of proved worth, especially to those who have secured some 
experience elsewhere. The principle, however, is clear: 
viz., so far as possible to fill vacancies by the appointment 
of teachers who can bring with them a view-point other 
than that obtained by training in the local schools. 

The following table gives the training of teachers in a 
New Jersey community where the principles indicated 
have been applied. 

Professional Preparation 

Principals Supervisors ^'^^^^^ High, ♦ Total 

College Training 3 4 16 34 57 

Normal Training 3 106 3 112 

Other Institutions 4 18 22 

High School 2 5 2 9 

In this group the different localities and institutions 
represented are so varied as to exercise a mutual restraint 
on the tendency of any one type of training to predom- 
inate. A graphic representation of this fact follows. 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 



Local Teachers 

New Jersey 
Colleges and Normals 

New York 
Colleges and Normals 

New England 
Colleges and Normals 



All Others 























15 




























46 




























43 




































83 






















13 



Relation of Local Teachers to Total Number 



THE SUPERVISORY AND TEACHING STAFF 25 

The constantly changing personnel of the teaching force 
is a serious detriment to efficiency. Because it takes 
time to learn the conditions peculiar to any system, even 
the best of teachers needs a year's association with the 
school before she can exercise her full powers. The 
principal and supervisors cannot use her services to 
the best advantage until they know her intimately. If 
a teacher is alert to her opportunities for helpfulness 
and is genuinely progressive, her capacity to do efficient 
work should increase steadily for years, and school officials 
cannot escape the penalty of retrogression in their schools 
if they allow such teachers to resign to accept better 
positions. 

The school system represented in the following table 
is failing to secure from its teachers the benefits that come 
from length of service. 

Tenure of Service 



Years 


Number Teachers 


Per Cent 


Over 10 


43 


21.5 


10 


7 


3.5 


9 


10 


5 


8 


12 


6 


7 


9 


4.5 


6 


12 


6 


5 


13 


6.5 


4 


15 


7.5 


3 


23 


11.5 


2 


23 


11.5 


1 


2,3 


16.5 




200 


100 



The facts are shown graphically on the chart at the 
top of the next page. 



26 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



Time of Service in Per Cents 



Per cent 



2.S 
























20 






















/ 


15 


\ 




















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\ 


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/ 


/ 


10 




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^ 





Years 1 23456789 10 

Similar statistics appear in the various survey reports. 

Years or Teaching Experience 



0-4 



5-9 



10-14 



15-19 Over 20 



Plainfield, N.J 42% 

East Orange, N.J 48 

Newark, N.J 29 

Passaic, N.J 52 

Butte, Montana 44 

Salt Lake City 50 



30% 


11% 


8% 


9% 


33 


8 


5 


6 


23 


18 


13 


17 


17 


15 


10 


6 


37 


19 






21 


17 


6 


6 



Dr. Strayer and Dr. Thorndike, in Educational Ad- 
ministration, give the median experience for men in the 
high school as eight years and for women six years. 

Any comparison of length of service for a given com- 
munity must not fail to take into consideration the ele- 
ment of growth in the schools. Obviously the city that 
is growing rapidly, and therefore increasing its teaching 
force, must increase to a corresponding degree the per- 
centage of teachers with the shorter period of service. 



CHAPTER V 
SALARIES 

That salaries and length of service are closely related 
is an obvious fact. Teachers, as a rule, are not working 
primarily for salaries, but they must live, and they con- 
sequently tend to accept positions in those communities 
which offer the highest tangible rewards. School condi- 
tions in large cities like New York or Chicago do not 
appeal to them; they prefer the larger freedom possible 
in the smaller communities. For this reason the smaller 
towns do not find it necessary to meet the salary schedule 
of the large city. They must, however, pay as much as 
others of their own class or there is no escape from the 
tendency of the best and most progressive teachers to drift 
to the communities in which the compensation is greatest. 

A teacher has a right to expect a salary which will 
enable her to secure a comfortable room and good food, 
and to dress in a manner in keeping with her position in 
the community. It should also provide her with funds 
for books and recreation, summer maintenance, and leave 
a margin for old age and unexpected contingencies. 
Constant financial worry is a serious handicap to a 
teacher's ability to give her best service. 

The exact salary required to meet the essential mini- 
mum must of necessity vary with local conditions. A 
number of extensive studies of this important question 
have recently been published, several of which are here 

reproduced. 

27 



28 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 








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SALARIES 



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30 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Salaries of Elementary Teachers in Fourteen Cities, 1913 ^ 

(^jj-y Average Median Lower Upper 

Salary Salary Quartile Quartile 

San Francisco, Cal.... $1152 $1200 $1140 $1224 

Boston, Mass 1059 1176 792 1176 

Chicago, 111 1054 1175 925 1200 

St. Louis, Mo 993 1032 972 1032 

Newark, N.J 951 1000 730 1100 

Cincinnati, Ohio 941 1000 850 1000 

MinneapoHs, Minn. ... 937 1000 900 1000 

Milwaukee, Wis 886 876 876 876 

Philadelphia, Pa 861 900 750 1000 

Cleveland, Ohio 834 850 675 950 

Washington, D.C 798 750 700 950 

Indianapolis, Ind 767 875 600 925 

Baltimore, Md 722 700 600 800 

New Orleans, La 668 700 600 750 



MEDLA.N Annual Salaries of Regular Teachers in 
Seventeen Cities ^ 

City Elementary Schools Secondary Schools 

Baltimore, Md $ 700 $1200 

Boston, Mass 1175 1620 

Buffalo, N.Y 900 .1200 

Chicago, 111 1175 1600 

Cincinnati, Ohio 1000 1300 

Cleveland, Ohio 900 1500 

Indianapohs, Ind 875 1 100 

Newark, N.J 1000 1900 

New Orleans, La 700 1100 

Philadelphia, Pa 900 1400 

Portland, Oregon 1050 1350 

Rochester, N.Y 800 1050 

Salt Lake City, Utah. . . 830 1130 

San Francisco, Cal 1200 1680 

St. Louis, Mo 1032 1520 

St. Paul, Minn 900 1300 

Washington, D.C 750 1800 

Average 934 $1397 

Cleveland Survey Report. 2 Buffalo Survey, Salaries, 1914 



SALARIES 31 

A factor of importance in establishing a salary schedule 
is the rate of compensation prevailing in other occupations. 
Education and theology are not primarily remunerative 

Comparison of Salary per Month Based on a Twelve 
Month Year, Salt Lake City Survey, 1915 

Public School Employees 

Elementary Schools. . .% 40.00 to $ 85.00 per month 

High Schools 41.66 '' 116.66 " 

H. S. Dept. Heads. . . . 100.00 '' U3M " 

City Employees 

Policemen 80.00 to 112.50 " 

Firemen 80.00 " 100.00 " 

Street Sweepers 1.75 " day- 
Clerks in offices 75.00" 100.00 '' month 

Stenographers 60.00" 75.00" 

Bank Employees 

Head Bookkeeper 90.00 " 125.00 " 

Collectors 30.00" 75.00" 

TeUers 100.00 " 150.00 " 

Railroad Employees 

Bookkeepers 90.00 " 110.00 " 

Traveling Men 100.00 " 'l50.00 " 

Stenogs. andSec'ys.... 50.00" 100.00" 

Telegraph Operators . . 85.00 " 100.00 " " 

Store Employees 

Bookkeepers 75.00 " 110.00 " 

Clerks, male 60.00 " 100.00 " 

" female 60.00 " 80.00 " 

occupations. Those who adopt such professions must, 
or ought to, be actuated somewhat by motives of social 
service, but they ought not to be excessively penalized 
for this altruism. It is incumbent on the community to 
make the material rewards so adequate as to prevent 
them from being forced into other lines of activity. 



32 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Salaries should be based on a study of the amount paid 
teachers in comparison with what they might reasonably 
expect if they entered other wage-earning occupations. 

More important than any question of basal salary is 
that of annual increment. No progressive community 
devoted to the welfare of its schools opposes a reasonable 
yearly increase to those teachers who begin their service 
at a salary approximating the minimum wage established 
in the schedule. The community does expect, and rightly, 
that this annual increase shall be justified by a corre- 
sponding growth in efHciency. Higher pay and higher 
standards are practically inseparable, but it is incumbent 
upon the teacher to demonstrate the increased value of 
the service rendered prior to the demand for a greater 
compensation. 

This principle makes prominent a subject which is 
frequently discussed in educational meetings, namely, 
the improvement of teachers in service. 

It is a well recognized fact that teachers from the very 
nature of their profession are prone to form fixed and 
narrow habits. The character of their work, the doing 
of the same thing over and over again year after year, 
inevitably tends to reduce their methods to a mechanical 
routine, and only vital contact with fresh ideas, or regular, 
systematic effort on their part, will prevent such a mis- 
fortune. The investigation of some original problem in 
education often proves a stimulus to growth, and many 
a teacher has been saved by becoming so interested in 
some phase of her work that she has undertaken the 
collection of original data bearing upon the question. 
Reliance upon herself, not only for the method of research 
but also for the correct interpretation of the facts dis- 



SALARIES 33 

covered, produces a mental attitude which is the very 
antithesis of formaHsm. 

When health and strength will permit, attendance upon 
the sessions of some summer school or upon the extension 
courses of a near-by university aids the professional 
growth of a teacher, with consequent advantage to the 
schools. Summer travel, opera, concerts, lectures, the 
theater, and similar forms of recreation, while not directly 
related to the work of the classroom, nevertheless give a 
degree of inspiration which is very effective in counter- 
acting the deadening effect of daily routine. 

Granting that the improvement in service resulting 
from the above methods directly benefits the community, 
there is no escape from the conclusion that teachers who 
try to increase their efficiency should receive a definite 
salary increase as compensation for their efforts. In the 
majority of school systems no such policy prevails. The 
teacher who spends her time and money in summer school 
work and the teacher who spends her vacations in mere 
pleasure-seeking, receive exactly the same financial 
recognition. This is wrong in principle, even though in 
some instances the service rendered the schools by the 
two types of teacher is equally valuable. The educa- 
tional department owes it to the children in the schools 
and to the instructor in the classroom to encourage 
teachers to make the most of the ability of which they are 
possessed. Financial recognition of an effort to increase 
professional skill is the most obvious method that can be 
employed. The argument that such additional training 
will ultimately secure professional recognition in some 
indirect manner is too remote a contingency to serve 
the purpose. The average person needs the stimulus of 
an immediate reward. 



CHAPTER VI 
PUPILS 

Since it is the business of the educational authorities 
to see that children of the compulsory school age are in 
attendance, the necessity for a complete and accurate 
census is apparent. Only when the school enrollment 
has been checked by the census list and all children have 
been accounted for in a satisfactory manner can it be 
assumed that the school authorities have discharged their 
obligation to the community. Unfortunately in the 
majority of instances such a careful accounting is not 
practiced. Too often the census returns are ignored, 
and the enrollment is assumed to show the number of 
children who come within the scope of the compulsory 
attendance law. Such a condition as this ought not to 
exist. The school officials should know, not guess or 
compute, the number of children of school age within 
their jurisdiction, the number enrolled in the public 
schools, those in attendance at private or parochial 
schools, and, finally, the actual number not in any schools, 
with the reasons for non-attendance. 

The extent of the failure of school officials to meet their 
obligations in this respect is revealed by the entire ab- 
sence of authoritative data indicating the percentage of 
justifiable discrepancy between enrollment and the census 
list. Even in the published reports of surveys made 
recently, the experts in charge, lacking definite informa- 
tion, have been compelled to estimate the extent to which 

34 



PUPILS 35 

non-compliance with the statutes of compulsory educa- 
tion prevails. 

Accurate census returns may seem unnecessary in the 
small town where the vigilance of attendance officers and 
the constant visits of the school nurse make it difficult to 
evade the requirements of the compulsory attendance law, 
and where private citizens frequently supplement the 
efforts of the officials by reporting the names of those 
children whom they know to be truants. The fact that 
children of school age are rarely found on the streets of 
the small towns also helps to justify the assumption that 
evasion of the law is the exception rather than the rule, 
but assumption is not evidence, and it would seem ad- 
visable that a census should be made at least every third 
year. Attendance rolls should then be checked by the 
census list and every child accounted for. Even better 
than such a three-year census would be a perpetual census 
maintained by securing the cooperation of the pupils, since 
this would not only result in providing data for school 
guidance but would also give the children valuable train- 
ing in civic responsibility. 

Various causes, such as ill health, or attendance at 
private and parochial schools, will always operate to 
produce a discrepancy between the number of children 
of school age in the community and those actually in 
attendance at public schools. Only a careful checking 
of the census returns will show where the missing children 
are, but the obligation rests squarely upon the school 
department to account for every one of them in a satis- 
factory manner. The number of those who must be 
sought out individually appears in the comparative 
statistics of the cities used as illustrations. 



36 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Children of Each Age in Cleveland Reported by the School 
Census of May, 1915, and the Number Enrolled in the 
Public Schools in June, 1915 ^ 

A „p rpn<;n<; ^^ Public Per Cent in 

^^^ ^^^^"^^ Schools Public Schools 



6 


14,584 


8,435 


58 


7 


13,844 


9,827 


71 


8 


13,560 


8,903 


65 


9 


12,140 


8,371 


69 


10 


11,939 


8,044 


67 


11 


10,914 


7,340 


67 


12 


11,458 


7,346 


64 


13 


10,321 


7,307 


71 


14 


10,359 


6,716 


65 


15 


9,269 


4,649 


50 


16 


10,005 


2,353 


13 


17 


9,980 


1,352 


14 


18 


11,674 


761 


6 


19 


10,381 


291 


3 


20 


10,713 


93 


.09 



171,141 81,788 47.8 



Reckoning the compulsory school age as 7-14, here are 
approximately 27,000 additional children not in attend- 
ance at the public schools. The number seems appall- 
ingly large, but doubtless the greater proportion of these 
attend parochial and private schools and a checking 
process v^ould disclose the fact. 

Springfield, Mass., affords an illustration of what even 
a large system may do in accounting for all pupils in the 
city. 

Butte, Mont., reveals the same general conditions, 
and a similar showing would doubtless be made by like 
comparisons in almost every city. 

^ Cleveland Survey Report. 



PUPILS 



37 



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38 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
Public School Enrollment vs. School Census, Butte, Montana 

Age In Public School Per Cent in 

Schools Census Public Schools 

6- 8 1,619 2,019 79.40 

8-14 3,996 5,330 75 

14-16 643 1,418 45 

16-21 55 3,082 1.80 

High School 727 ._^_^ ._^^ 

~~~ 7,040 11,849 59A 

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of such 
data in determining the extent to which the school 
system is meeting its obligations, for every city must 
enforce the compulsory attendance law and accurate and 
complete census returns are the only basis for intelligent 
action. 

The distribution of the pupils in the grades, which is 
the easiest fact concerning a school system to secure, 
provides direct evidence of the holding power of the 
schools. With conditions absolutely constant, a table of 
this character would give one hundred pupils in the 
twelfth grade for every hundred entering the first grade, 
but this simple condition never exists. Illness, and change 
in population due to removal from the city, together with 
a constant elimination for various causes, result in a 
slowly lessening enrollment up to the sixth grade and 
a very rapid decline from that grade to the end of the 
twelfth. 

Dr. Ayres' chart of distribution for 386 cities is suffi- 
ciently comprehensive to furnish a satisfactory basis for 
comparison. The chart given here shows the distribution 
in a New Jersey city as compared with the Ayres table. 

The following diagram gives graphically Dr. Ayres' 



PUPILS 



39 



distribution in 386 cities on the basis of 1000 children 
in the first grade, in comparison with the distribution in 
one town with 444 in the first grade. The single system 
is shown by the dotted oblong. The height of the columns 



Per 
cent 

100 
90 
80 
70 
60 

50 
40 
30 
20 
10 




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1000 723 682 640 552 462 368 263 189 123 81 56 



indicates the per cent of the first grade enrolled in the 
higher grades. 

This diagram represents a typical condition: large 
numbers of children are in the lower grades and com- 
paratively small numbers in the upper grades, a situation 
which constitutes one of the serious problems confronting 



40 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

school administrators. There are several reasons for 
such a distribution: (1) When a school system is growing, 
the children who produce the increase are more likely to 
enter the lower than the higher grades. (2) When chil- 
dren repeat grades, progress through school is retarded 
and the membership of the lower grades is increased. 
(3) Many children, for economic reasons or because of 
indifference or incapacity, leave school on reaching the 
limit of the compulsory school age. (4) Mortality has 
a small effect on the decrease. 

Since this problem of decreasing enrollment is uni- 
versal, it becomes important to determine its extent in 
any school system as compared with other schools. 
If it does not appear to be disproportionate, the school 
is evidently meeting the situation as efffciently as others 
are. Should the decrease be in excess of the prevailing 
rate, it becomes imperative, as the first step in correcting 
the condition, to search out the cause of the unusual 
amount of elimination. On the other hand, a compara- 
tively good record does not relieve the school from the 
obligation to put forth every effort to increase its holding 
power to a still higher degree. 

It is not sufficient to compare any single city with so 
large a group as that included in Dr. Ayres' study. Con- 
ditions vary widely, and a situation unavoidable in one 
community might not exist in another of a different 
character. The following table, giving the distribution 
of pupils by single cities, provides a check upon the massed 
figures used by Dr. Ayres. In this table the figures 
show by per cents the relation of each grade enrollment 
to the total enrollment. 



PUPILS 



Percentage of Total Enrollment in Each Grade 



41 



Grade 


Springfield, 

ni. 


Cleveland, 
Ohio 


Montclair, 

nj. 


La Crosse, 
Wis. 


Solway, 

n.y. 


Brookline, 

Mass. 


Newton, 
Mass. 


I.. 


. .. 12.1 


164 


8.3 


9.5 


14 


10 


10.1 


II.. 


. .. 13 


13.6 


9.1 


12.2 


8.3 


10 


9.4 


III.. 


. . . 14.1 


13.3 


9.4 


10.7 


15.7 


8 


8.5 


IV.. 


. . . 12.4 


12.2 


7.9 


104 


12.8 


10 


8.1 


v.. 


. .. 12 


11.2 


8 


9.5 


9.9 


10 


8.9 


VI.. 


. . . 9.8 


9.3 


7.2 


9.6 


6.9 


9 


7.3 


VII.. 


. . . 8.4 


8.1 


7.1 


8.5 


16.1 


9 


7.7 


VIII . . 


... 6 


6.1 


5.3 


6.2 


5.7 


8 


6.7 


IX.. 


. . . 4.3 


3.5 


6.7 


9.2 


4.2 


8 


8.3 


X.. 


. . . 3.4 


2.6 


4.8 


5.9 


3.5 


6 


6.8 


XI.. 


... 2 


1.9 


4.4 


4.6 


2.7 


5.5 


5.7 


XII.. 


... 2 


1.7 


2.5 


3.2 


1.6 


4 


4.3 


XIII.. 












2.5 





One of the most significant facts in the distribution of 
attendance is the extent to which the school succeeds in 



Percentage Each Age is of Total Enrollment 



Between 

Years 


Montclair 
No. Per Cent 


No. 


Butte 
Per Cent 


Paterson 
No. Per Cent 


Newton 
No. Per Cent 


4-5 


269 


6 






444 


1.1 


178 


2.5 


5-6 


310 


6.9 


22 


.03 


2164 


9.5 


454 


6.4 


6-7 


401 


8.9 


912 


14.4 


2312 


ion 


549 


7.7 


7-8 


408 


9.1 


707 


11.2 


2226 


9.8 


582 


8.2 


8-9 


390 


8.6 


702 


11.1 


2168 


9.5 


550 


7.7 


9-10 


346 


7.7 


726 


11.5 


2223 


9.8 


586 


8.2 


10-11 


347 


7.7 


642 


10.3 


2096 


9.2 


605 


8.5 


11-12 


345 


7.6 


662 


10.5 


1994 


8.8 


591 


8.3 


12-13 


333 


7.4 


671 


10.6 


2004 


8.8 


584 


8.2 


13-14 


331 


74 


593 


9.4 


1845 


8.1 


596 


8.3 


14-15 


307 


6.8 


415 


6.6 


1541 


6.8 


534 


7.6 


15-16 


274 


6.1 


228 


3.6 


675 


2.9^ 






16-17 


207 


4.6 


44 


.06 


586 


2.1 




• 


17-18 


123 


2.7 


9 


.01 


350 


1.1 


■ 1382 


19.5 


18-19 


71 


1.6 


2 


.005 


127 


.5 


19-20 


37 


.9 


. . . 


.... 


75 


.3 






20-21 










58 


.1 J 







42 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

holding pupils beyond the compulsory school age, which 
in most states is fourteen years. The ratio of the number 
of pupils beyond this age to the total enrollment is readily 
obtained from the preceding table, which gives the per- 
centage of children of the different ages in attendance. 

An industrial city of the character of Paterson, N.J., 
where only 14.9% of the school children are fourteen 
years of age or more, cannot be expected to equal the 
record of the residence town of Newton, Mass., which 
has few industries to stimulate the wage earning impulse 
of the pupils, but comparison can easily be made between 
two cities of a similar type, and this shows in a striking 
fashion the extent to which the school succeeds or fails 
in making the curriculum furnish a direct appeal to the 
interests of pupils or in securing an appreciation on their 
part of the commercial value of an education. 

A material factor in determining the efficiency of any 
educational system is the percentage of pupils who remain 
for the entire course. Such information is not easy to 
secure as almost no reports of superintendents give the 
number of ciiildren entering school each year; conse- 
quently students of education are forced to make their 
own estimate. One method is to assume that the same 
number of children are born each year in a city, in which 
case the largest age group enrolled in the schools would 
constitute the yearly entering number. 

More accurate is the plan followed by Dr. Leonard 
Ayres, which consists in taking the average of the age 
groups from seven to twelve years of age. While this 
number is not absolutely correct, it is reasonably so, 
and furnishes a safe basis for comparison. A complete 
discussion of this important question appears in Dr. 



PUPILS 43 

Ayres' book Laggards in Our Schools, with a list of fifty- 
nine cities showing persistence of attendance for the 
twelve grades. The percentage of beginners remaining 
in grades eight and twelve for ten cities estimated on 
this basis is given here. 

Percentage or Beginners Remaining in Grades VIII and XII 
IN Ayres' Group of 59 Cities and 10 Single Cities 

^., Percentage Remaining Percentage Remaining 

^^^y Grade VIII Grade XII 

Ayres' Median, 59 cities. .51 10 

Montclair, NJ 90 40 

Springfield, 111 45.5 18.5 

Boise, Idaho 75 28 

Paterson, N.J 63 No data 

Rockford, 111 76 26 

Springfield, Mass 65 19 

Butte, Montana 54 No data 

Brookline, Mass 89 29 1 

;N'ewton, Mass 85 54 

N. Attleborough, Mass.. . . 76.6 28 

In every community are found some parents so in- 
different to the educational progress of their children 
as not to require their regular attendance at school ses- 
sions, although no child who fails to be present at least 
seventy-five per cent of the time can hope to be promoted. 
It is difficult to enforce the compulsory attendance laws 
in such cases, because of the prescribed routine which 
usually requires that notice of intention to prosecute 
shall be given a specified number of days in advance. 
The parent, being thus warned, escapes the penalty by 
sending the child back to school for a time. Besides 
these avoidable absences, sickness and other legitimate 

1 Grade XIII. 



44 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

reasons help to swell the number of days of non- 
attendance. The success of various school departments 
in making parents realize the importance of regular school 
attendance is indicated by the following table. 

Percentage of Attendance in Twelve New Jersey Towns 



Town ^-^jg; gotibief ^"^ I-^-^entage Attendance 

Belleville 197 96.6 

Bloomfield 188 90 

CaldweU 188 88.8 

East Orange 187 91.9 

Glen Ridge 181 89.5 

Irvington 193 92.7 

Millburn 191 90.1 

Montclair 188 90.6 

Nutley 188 91 

Orange 197 94.8 

South Orange 187 91 

West Orange 193 92J 

Median 189 91 



In computing percentage of attendance it is customary 
to insure high rank by dropping from the roll the names 
of pupils who have been absent a specified number of 
days. The resulting massed figures give no information 
concerning the persistence of attendance. So far as the 
individual is concerned it is impossible to determine 
whether he has been present most of the time or not. 
The fluctuations from day to day are really nothing but 
surface indications of the weather conditions or the 
attractiveness of other interests. The vital consideration 
of this whole matter is the comparison of the actual 
number of days the child attends school with the possible 
maximum. 



PUPILS 45 

Assuming that the presence of pupils at three fourths of 
the school sessions is a reasonable prerequisite for promo- 
tion it follows that the statistics of attendance arranged 
by fourths of the school year will show what percentage 
of the children may expect advancement. 

Persistence of Attendance of Pupils in Different Cities i 

p-. Less than Less than Less than More than 

^ one fourth one half three fourths tliree fourths 

Dayton, 4.7% 9.2% 21.6% 78.4% 

Grand Rapids, Mich... 6.7 14.8 27.5 72.5 

Cleveland, 8.6 18.3 28 72 

Springfield, 6.5 13.7 28.2 71.8 

Syracuse, N.Y 6.2 16 29.7 70.3 

St. Louis, Mo 10.1 20 32.9 67.1 

Kansas City, Mo 10.6 20.8 35.1 64.9 

New Orleans, La 7.7 21.3 37.4 62.6 

Columbus, O 6.9 ISA 38^6 6L4 

Average 7.5 1A9 31 69 

This table discloses the striking fact that in every city, 
with one exception, less than 75% of the pupils are in 
actual attendance at school more than three fourths of 
the time. 

Three of these cities publish figures which make possible 
a comparison between regularity of attendance and per- 
centage of promotion. 

Comparison between Percentages of Attendance 
AND Promotion in Three Cities 2 

City in^l^^ Per cent promoted 

Springfield,© 71.8 72.8 

Syracuse, N.Y 70.3 64.9 

New Orleans, La 62.6 54^9 

1 Leonard Ayres, Laggards in Our Schools. 2 Ibid. 



46 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The reason for the low percentage of promotion in the 
preceding table is that Dr. Ayres has compared the num- 
ber of pupils promoted with the whole number enrolled, 
not with those still enrolled on the last day of the year, as 
is commonly done. 

Tables relating to age and grade statistics are fre- 
quently found in school reports, probably because the 
amount of retardation is readily obtained and the figures 
are very easy of interpretation. Excessive retardation 
is symptomatic of a poorly adjusted curriculum, lacking 
in flexibility, and is the direct result of an excessive 
percentage of non-promotion. Age and progress studies 
naturally accompany the retardation table, and the two 
are essential to a clear understanding of any school 
situation. Age and progress facts are more difficult to 
obtain, since they must come either from a study of 
individual biographical cards or from questioning the 
pupils. The latter plan involves the risk of considerable 
error, the memory of children with respect to repetition 
of grades being by no means reliable. A study made in 
the writer's own school system indicates that normal 
and accelerated pupils usually know what has happened 
to them, but with retarded pupils the uncertainty is 
noticeable. In the study referred to, 30 per cent of the 
retarded pupils reported normal progress; 4.5 per cent 
gave one year less than they had actually lost, and another 
4.5 per cent two years less. Plainly the facts should be 
secured from biographical cards whenever this source of 
information is available, but unfortunately these cards 
are often lacking. 

A comprehensive study of both age and grade and age 
and progress has been made by the Russell Sage Founda- 



PUPILS 47 

Number of Pupils and Percentage Classification in 

Age and Progress 

Groups for 29 Cities, June, 1911 

p.-. Number Age Classification Progress Classification 

^^^^ Pupils % Young % Normal % Old % Rapid % Normal % Slow 

Amsterdam, N.Y... 2,371 49 23 28 30 49 21 

Bayonne, NJ 7,033 27 31 42 18 47 35 

Canton, Ohio 5,567 28 38 34 2 55 43 

Danbury, Conn. . . . 1,967 38 31 31 12 57 31 

DanviUe, N.Y 2,260 28 34 38 7 55 38 

E. St. Louis, lU. . . . 5,380 22 34 44 15 48 37 

Elizabeth, N.J 7,058 23 31 46 12 48 40 

Elmira, N.Y 2,487 38 28 34 10 53 37 

Hazleton, Pa 2,655 22 36 42 3 53 44 

IndianapoUs,Ind... 23,874 34 37 29 19 56 25 

Kenosha, Wis 2,223 16 36 48 7 46 47 

MUwaukee, Wis.... 32,251 28 41 31 17 61 22 

Montclair, N.J.i . . . 3,941 22 62 16 10 60 30 

Muskegon, Mich. . . 3,163 25 40 35 14 55 31 

New Orleans, La.2 .23,664 20 31 49 13 51 36 

New RocheUe, N.Y. 3,641 36 30 34 19 51 30 

Niagara FaUs, N.Y. 3,244 31 S3 36 6 60 34 

Passaic, N.J 5,541 17 32 51 14 48 38 

Perth Amboy, N.J. . 3,947 27 32 41 13 38 49 

Plainfield, N.J 2,312 30 30 40 6 56 38 

Quincy, Mass 4,540 50 31 19 4 52 44 

Racine, Wis 4,075 30 42 28 3 69 28 

Reading, Pa 10,585 25 35 40 6 47 47 

Rockford, lU 5,649 28 40 32 15 56 29 

Schenectady, N.Y. . 7,846 26 30 44 9 52 39 

Syracuse, N.Y 13,610 42 29 29 7 54 39 

Topeka, Kan 4,894 26 38 36 11 58 31 

Trenton, N.J 8,787 31 31 38 7 49 44 

Watertown, N.Y. . . 3,303 25 32 43 10 49 41 

tion and is reproduced here.^ The table is based upon 

the returns from twenty-nine cities involving 206,495 

1 1916 figures. 2 White. 

3 Identification of the Misfit Child, Leonard Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation. 



48 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

children and followed the usual method of reckoning an 
eight-year-old child in the first grade as one year over- 
age, a nine-year-old child in the second grade a simi- 
larly handicapped and so on up the grades. 

In making a study of this character there should be 
included not only the question of amount of retardation 
but also the number of years the different pupils have 
fallen behind their respective grades. The Survey 
Report for Salt Lake City presents the facts for that city 
graphically. 

Degree of Acceleration or Retardation of Pupils in the 
Salt Lake City Schools 




Years 2 1 
Accelerated 



12 3 

Retarded 



It should be remembered that these age-grade statistics were taken at the 
end of the school year, and include all pupils from the kindergarten to the 
twelfth grade inclusive. 



PUPILS 49 

The Survey Report for Butte, Montana, with an 
enrollment of 6337 gives the following distribution. 



Under Normal Age 


Normal Age 


Over Normal Age 




One year Less than 
and more 1 year 


Less 
than 

lyr. 


1 yr. and 2 yrs. and 

less less 

than 2 than 3 


3 years 
or 
more 


8 460 


2,603 1,790 


891 386 


199 



Rockford, 111., enrollment 6929, reports 2573 over-age 
pupils distributed as follows: 

One year behind 1,533 

Two years behind 684 

Three years behind 242 

Four years behind 76 

Five years behind 28 

Six years behind 7 

Seven years behind 3 

The 1914-15 report of the Superintendent in Passaic, 
N.J., gives the distribution of retarded pupils in that 
city for the different grades. 





Retardation 


IN Passaic, N.J., 


1915 






Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


v 


VI VII 


VIII 


Total 


Per cent 

of all 
Retarded 


Retarded 1 yr 94 

2 " 9 

3 " 5 

4 " 1 

or more 


187 

38 

7 

4 


245 

91 

26 

8 


260 
72 
39 
19 


226 
92 
21 
10 


191 88 
79 45 
20 3 
3 


51 
9 

1 


1342 

435 

122 

45 


69.03 

22.38 

6.27 

2.27 


Total retarded 

Total enrolled .... 
Per cent retarded . . 


. . 109 
. . 1029 
. 10.5 


236 
1226 
19.2 


370 
1281 
28.8 


390 
1058 
36.8 


349 
1105 
31.5 


293 136 

824 578 

35.5 23.5 


61 
409 
14.9 


1944 
7510 
25.89 





Similar facts are reported for the high school of La 



Crosse, Wisconsin. 



Age and Grade 


Age and Progress 


Under Normal Over- 
Age Age age 


Rapid Normal Slow 
Progress Progress Progress 


17.5% 34.1% 48.4% 


28.7% 39.8% 31.5% 



50 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The significance of such statistics is reahzed when we 
remember that the majority of over-age children become 
discouraged and drop out of school before the completion 
of their course. Even while they remain in school they 
fail to receive the type of instruction suited to them, 
and their improper classification diverts the attention of 
the teacher from those who are rightly placed in the grade. 

When the causes of retardation are sought, almost 
insurmountable obstacles are encountered. Reports of 
teachers giving reasons for failure have as the only basis 
their best judgment, but human inability to see behind 
surface indications and grasp the fundamental causes 
renders this judgment of little value. The apparent 
indifference of a pupil may be caused by a failure on the 
part of the school to provide a real motive for exertion. 
The causes of a pupil's attitude are complex, and really 
to know why he persists in any line of conduct presupposes 
the ability to enter into his mind and get his point of 
view. Despite the natural difficulties of the question, 
several studies have been made to determine some of the 
chief reasons for pupil failure. One of the most extensive 
of these is a summary of the reports from twenty Indiana 
cities 

Extent of over-ageness in any school system is vitally 
affected by percentage of non-promotion, but super- 
intendents as a rule fail to recognize that the control of 
this factor lies almost entirely in their own hands. Actu- 
ated by the most worthy motives they set up too high a 
standard of attainment, and an excessive rate of non- 
promotion results. On the other hand, the standard 
might be so low as to enable practically all pupils to reach 
it, but the possible outcome would be their failure on 



PUPILS SI 

encountering the future demands of higher institutions. 
Somewhere between these two extremes lies the safe 
road for the school to follow. 

Causes of Retardation in Twenty Indiana Cities ^ 

Cause Total Reported Per Cent of Enrollment 

Mentally defective . . . Boys 302 1 _ 

Girls 238 1 ^^" ^'^ ' 

Physically defective . . Boys 157 1 nr.^ 

Girls 127 j 2^* 1-2 

Sickness Boys 167 1 __ 

Girls 153] ^^^ ^'^ 

Truancy Boys 28 1 , - 

Girls 8 1 ^^ '^^ 

Poor home life Boys 234 | __. 

Girls 150 1 ^«* '-^ 

Late start Boys 1291 _ . - 

Girls 116 1 ^^^ ^ 

Laziness Boys 2731 

Girls 69] ^^^ ^-^ 

Overworked Boys 111 

Girls 13 1 '^ 

Change of schools Boys '2471 

Girls 191 1 ^^^ ^-^ 

Irregular attendance . Boys 1551 

„. , .-_ > 280 1.1 

Girls 125 ] 

Poor teaching Boys ^^l o/i 

Girls 9\ ^^ '^ 

Timidity Boys 20l __ 

Girls 35] 

Other causes Boys 261] 

> 451 2 

Gurls 190] ^ 

Total retarded... Boys 1999 \ 3,423 
Girls 1424/ 

Total enrollment . 23,253 

Per cent retarded 14.7 

^ Report Second Annual Conference on Educational Measurements, Indiana 
University. 



52 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

No question in administration is more difficult of 
solution than this, and no hard and fast rules for de- 
termining the fitness of the child for promotion can be 
given. Examinations do not reveal the capacity of the 
pupil, and the daily marks given by teachers are equally 
unreliable. Experience indicates that the deliberate 
judgment of the trained teacher at the close of the year 
is as dependable a basis as can be found, especially if the 
degree of flexibility in the administration of the school 
is such that a re-classification of the pupil can be made 
whenever it is apparent that a mistake in judgment has 
occurred. The reports of school superintendents for 
19 1 6 indicate that approximately 10% of pupils fail of 
promotion. This is shown in the table given below. 



Percentage of Non-Promotion in Ten Cities 



City 



II 



III 



IV 



V 



VI 



VII 



VIII Total 



Ashland, Ore. . 
Boise, Idaho . . 

Butte, Mont 

Cleveland, Ohio 
Des Moines, la. 

Maiden, Mass. . 
Montclair, NJ.. 
New Orleans, La 
Passaic, N.J. . . . 
Paterson, N.J. 



13 
13.8 
24 
15.5 
9.5 



6 

1.8 
17 
12.3 

5.5 



14 10.8 

7.8 5.3 

9.4 14.7 

24 18.5 



4.3 
2.7 

14 

12.4 
7.6 

10.3 
12 
12.6 
20.1 



4.5 

2.9 

14.5 

14.6 

8.5 

4.5 
11.5 
15 

6.2 



7.3 

1.1 

13.5 

17.8 

6.5 

7.8 
9 

15.2 
9.2 



6.6 
2.3 

17 

17.2 
6.5 

7.6 
10.7 
16.2 

9.7 



5 

2.8 
21.5 
17 

4.4 

4.1 
14 
10.6 

6.3 



3.2 6.3 

1.8 4 

11 18 

9.8 14.6 

2.5 6.6 

6 7.9 

15 10.2 

3.2 14.2 

6.4 12.7 

11.7 



However unsatisfactory the promotion conditions may 
be in any school system, no real improvement can result 
from an arbitrary change in the promotion rate. The 
only sound method of procedure is the making of a care- 
ful study of the situation in cooperation with principals 
and teachers. Then, with a clear appreciation of the 



PUPILS 



53 



seriousness of the problem, definite rules of action can be 
formulated for its solution. 

Before steps can be taken to correct the evil of excessive 
failures, it may be necessary to ascertain the subjects in 
the curriculum which are causing the difficulty, but such 
statistics are not usually given in school reports. The 
Butte Survey has the following significant figures. 



Failure by Studies 



City 



^atlndif ^^^d- Arith- Lan- Spell- 
Semester ""g '"^ti^ g"^se ing 



Geog- Physi- U.S. 
raphy ology Hist. 



Butte, Mont 5744 



396 497 221 143 165 100 27 
6.9% 8.6% 3.8% 2.5% 2.9% 1.7% .05% 



Writ- 
ing 



Draw- 
ing 



Music 



Manual 
Training 



Sewing 



Butte, Mont. 



31 

.05% 



20 

.03% 



29 

.05% 



7 
.01% 



2 
.003% 



Percentage of the Total Number of Failures in Each 
Grade in Each Subject — Cleveland ^ 









Grades 












Subject 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


v 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Reading 


. 92 


64 


27 


16 


8 


5 


3 


3 


Arithmetic 




22 


60 


47 


42 


35 


29 


28 


Spelling 


. . . 


. . . 


7 


11 


7 


5 


3 


4 


Language 


. 


. . . 


6 


21 


20 


14 






Geography. . . 




. . . 




6 


23 


27 


12 


10 


Grammar. . . . 


. . . 




. . . 


. . . 


. . . 


11 


29 


33 


History 


. ... 












27 


13 



In the high school, departmental teaching makes it 
necessary to consider failures by subjects. Data of this 
character do not appear as a rule in school reports, but 
the condition has been studied in a large number of high 

^ Cleveland Survey Report. 



54 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

schools. In 1916 a group of fourteen superintendents 
in New Jersey made a cooperative study of high school 
failures involving over 24,000 records, a number suffi- 
ciently large to be indicative of prevailing conditions. 
The total number of marks tabulated was as follows: 

Mathematics 4,811 

Latin 2,420 

History 3,206 

German 2,632 

Business subjects 5,434 

English 6,392 

Total 24,895 



High School Failure in Fourteen New Jersey Cities 

School FaTfuTJi f^^^h. Soph. Jun. Sen. Eng. ^at- Ger^ ^ath. Hist. g^^J' 

A 18.2 22 26 22 21 14 11.5 

B 17 19 19 16 4 14 20 26 27 8 11 

C... 16 19 20 8 9 7 20 29 15.5 5 22 

D 20 34 19 12 11 

E 11 13 14 4 5 16 13 1 13 13 8 

F 16.2 14 20 27 26 11 21 

G 12 17 10 6 2 15 16 6 12 11 4 

H 8 12 10 5 3 8 10 8 18 8 12 

1 27 31 33 25 9 24 23 26 36 30 22 

J 14 19 16 1 9 26 23 14 7 15 

K 8 10 9 4 4 3 18 13 22 6 9 

M 16 18 17 14 7 11 15 16 31 12 9 

N 13 10 10 15 20 13 10 

8 8 14 7 9 7 7 

Median 15 18.5 16.5 7 4.5 11 18 16 20 11 11 



In Ohio similar data in four subjects — Algebra, Latin, 
1st English, 2nd English — were collected by R. D. 

1 The figures give the per cent of failure. 



PUPILS 55 

Bennett, of Westville, for forty representative high 
schools with an enrollment of 15,000 pupils. The forty 
schools were divided into two groups according to size 
and the median percentage of failure for each group is 
here reproduced. 



Percentage of Failure by 


Subject 


Algebra Latin 


1st 2nd 
English English 


Large high schools. . . 17 22.5 
Small high schools ... 14 14.5 


11.5 10.5 
5.5 8 



In both of these studies only pupils remaining in the 
class to the close of the year were considered. To furnish 
complete information to any high school principal, similar 
data are needed for all others enrolled at the beginning 
of the year; but without doubt the majority of pupils 
who dropped out of school would be included in the list 
of failures. 

Educational science' is not sufficiently developed at 
the present time to enable us to determine with any 
assurance of accuracy the effect of class size upon the 
progress of children through the schools. Several studies 
indicate that large classes do not result so disastrously 
to pupil progress or class efficiency as has been commonly 
supposed. Nevertheless, the fact that private schools, 
although operated for financial gain, maintain small 
classes, and that educators and laymen, with hardly a 
dissenting voice, declare small classes are a distinct 
advantage to the children concerned, implies that some 
elements in the problem still require investigation. 

This question vitally concerns every school super- 
intendent since no single item so radically affects the 



56 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

per capita cost of education as the size of the classes in 
the system. According to the best information available, 
the prevailing practice respecting the size of classes in 
different cities is as follows: 

Average Size Classes in Twenty-two Cities^ 

Number of Children per Number of Children per 

City Teacher-Elementary Teacher-Secondary 

Average Attendance Average Attendance 

Baltimore, Md 33.1 19.1 

Boston, Mass 36.4 26.9 

Buffalo, N.Y 28 ' ^ 22.5 

Cincinnati, Ohio 29.4 20.5 

Cleveland, Ohio 37.4 20.2 

Detroit, Mich 33.6 19.6 

Indianapohs, Ind 30.9 22.9 

Jersey City, N.J 38.4 23.3 

Kansas City, Mo 30.2 15.2 

Los Angeles, Cal 26.8 18.1 

Milwaukee, Wis 35.1 18.6 

New Orleans, La 29.3 20.2 

Omaha, Neb 27.7 20 

Pittsburgh, Pa 31 18.6 

Portland, Ore 26.7 23.3 

Rochester, N.Y 23.3 16.9 

Salt Lake City, Utah 30.3 11.3 

San Francisco, Cal 35.6 27.2 

Seattle, Wash 31.7 19.8 

St. Louis, Mo 38.2 19.2 

St. Paul, Minn 51.1 18.7 

Washington, D.C 28.6 18.2 

Average 32.4 20 

1 Buffalo Survey Report. 



PUPILS 



SI 



Sizes of Classes by Grades^ 

Maximum Number of Minimum Number of Average Number of 

Grade Pupils per Teacher Pupils per Teacher Pupils per Teacher 

Kd 52 22 36.4 

1 65 22 44.2 

II 59 17 39.2 

III 45 15 37.7 

IV 55 14 38 

V 50 19 38.5 

VI 63 21 39.3 

VII 49 23 36.4 

VIII 43 20 33.6 

IX 46 11 28.7 



In the following table appears the average number of 
pupils per teacher in various cities as compiled from 
published reports. 



Average Number of Pupils per Teacher 



City 


No. 

Elementary 
Teachers 


Elementary 
School 
Average 


No. 

High School 

Teachers 


High School 
Average 


Average 

All 
Schools 


Springfield, Mass. . 


363 


34.5 


66 


19.6 




Newton, Mass 


168 


34.3 


53 


26.6 


31.1 


Paterson, N.J 


469 


37 


70 


29 


33.5 


Brookline, Mass. . . 


98 


3$ 


. . . 


. . . 


. . . 


Pasadena, Cal 






... 




19.2 


Berkeley, Cal 








... 


24.6 


Denver, Colo 






... 


• . . 


25.8 


Seattle, Wash 






... 


. . . 


27.2 


Portland, Ore 






... 


... 


28.7 


Tacoma, Wash 






. . . 


. . . 


33.8 


Stamford, Conn. . . . 










36.7 



1 Bufifalo Survey Report. 



58 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Class Size Twenty-five High Schools in Middle West 
AND in Two Single Cities^ 

Subject 25 High S chools Butte, Mont. Montclair, NJ. Safety Zone 

Music 58 ... ... 42-88 

Physical training 32 ... 79 28-55 

English 22 21.7 23 20-24 

Mathematics 21 19.8 21 18-24 

History 21 20.4 23 17-23 

Science 20 20.1 19 16-22 

Commercial subjects . . 19 21.9 20 15-23 

Drawing 18 14.4 10 14-24 

Modern languages 17 11.8 18 15-20 

Latin 17 15.1 20 14-19 

Household arts 17 14.0 12 13-23 

Manual training 14 12.4 13 12-18 



Pupils per Teacher in Massachusetts High Schools ^ 



City Number Teachers High School Average 



Boston 508 29.5 

Worcester 126 26.4 

Cambridge ... 91 26.5 

Somerville. . . . 69 27 

Brockton 54 25.5 

Maiden 40 28.1 

Fitchburg 34 26.3 

Everett 31 28.8 

Chelsea 22 24.1 

Pittsfield 32 23.5 

Chicopee 14 20.1 

Medford 27 30.9 

Melrose 27 29.7 

Brookline 29 20.5 



^ School Report, Topeka, Kansas, 1914-15. 
^ State Commissioner's Report, 1912-13. 



PUPILS 59 

Number of Classes of Varying Size — Massachusetts 
High Schools — 1916 

Group r^5 6^T0 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31^^35 Over 35 Total 
pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupi ls Classes 



100 


384 


1093 


2167 


2700 


2418 


1614 


1613 


12,089 


100 


393 


612 


843 


726 


521 


259 


112 


3,566 


142 


296 


419 


404 


277 


178 


69 


26 


1,811 


190 


404 


320 


269 


130 


33 


16 


8 


1,370 


243 


300 


220 


89 


35 


7 


5 





899 



Total 775 1777 2664 3772 3868 3157 1963 1759 19,735 

Group 1 consists of 57 High Schools enrolling over 500 pupils each 
u 2 " " 45 " " " 200-500 

" 3 " "46 " " " 101-200 " " 

u 4 u u 52 a u u 51-100 " " 

" 5 " " 51 " " " 50 or fewer " 

Average Size of Classes in High Schools in 19 Cities, 1914 ^ 

•NT No. Pupils T> -1 
Pi'tv ^°- Average Pupils per 
'^_;^ Teachers Atttdance teacher 

Baltimore, Md 228 

Boston, Mass 505 

Buffalo, N.Y 163 

Cleveland, Ohio 354 

Cincinnati, Ohio ... . 188 

Detroit, Mich 285 

Indianapolis, Ind. . . . 167 

Jersey City, NJ. ... 124 

Kansas City, Mo.... 228 

Los Angeles, Cal 480 

Milwaukee, Wis 220 

Minneapolis, Minn. . 288 

Newark, N.J 173 

New Orleans, La. ... 95 

Pittsburgh, Pa 288 

San Francisco, Cal. . 118 

Seattle, Wash 235 

St. Louis, Mo 311 

Washington, D.C. . . 316 

Average 20.8 

1 Cleveland Survey Report. 



4,365 


19.1 


3,570 


26.9 


3,673 


22.5 


7,167 


20.2 


3,863 


20.5 


5,594 


19.6 


3,832 


22.9 


2,893 


23.3 


4,362 


19.1 


8,696 


18.1 


4,090 


18.6 


6,207 


21.6 


3,245 


18.8 


1,920 


20.2 


5,367 


18.6 


3,198 


27.1 


4,656 


19.8 


5,959 


19.2 


5,770 


18.3 



6o METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Enrollment per Teacher — Small Towns in New Jersey 

Town KcL HV V-VIII IX-XII 

Belleville 41 39 23 

Bloomfield 46 36 27 20 

Caldwell 35 32 34 28 

East Orange ... 43 41 37 28 

Glen Ridge 36 25 31 18 

Irvington 46 42 27 

Millburn 29 28 31 13 

Montclair 21 32 26 24 

Nutley 51 40 38 21 

Orange 45 45 26 28 

South Orange . . 25 34 33 25 

West Orange. . . 42 38 35 33 

Median ... 39 37 33.5 24.5 

One of the troublesome questions in school administra- 
tion is the determination of the number of teaching 
hours per week which should be required of high school 
teachers. Motives of economy suggest an increase of 

Length of Teaching Week per Teacher by Subject in 
Twenty-five High Schools, Central West 

Median Hours 
Subject 60 minutes per week Zone of Safety 

Agriculture 25.4 23-28 

Household arts 24.3 21-28 

Commercial subjects. .. . 24.1 23-27 

English 23.3 20-26 

Latin 23.2 21-26 

Modern languages 23.2 20-26 

Shop work 23.1 21-26 

History 23 20-26 

Music 22.9 15-25 

Drawing 25.6 21-27 

Science 22.5 » 20-25 

Physical training 22 19-25 



PUPILS 6i 

the periods, but due regard for the health of the teacher 
and the efhciency of instruction tend toward a lessening 
of the requirement. English teachers argue that the 
multiplicity of themes to be read necessitates more 
vacant periods than in subjects involving laboratory work 
or those in which blackboard work is a prominent feature. 
The 1915 report of the superintendent of schools in 
Topeka, Kansas, gives the practice in twenty-five high 
schools in the Central West. 



CHAPTER VII 
EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 

One of the functions of the supervisory ofhcer is to 
determine the efficiency of instruction in the schools 
under his charge. For many years this was judged by 
the periodical written examination, which, as a method 
of school supervision, was as poor and wasteful a plan as 
could be devised. Superintendents have come to recog- 
nize its futility, and its place has been taken by the 
standard test which has been used with sufficiently large 
numbers of pupils to provide norms of a reasonable 
degree of accuracy. 

By applying these tests in conformity with the direc- 
tions accompanying them, it is possible to obtain results 
comparable with those secured in other cities. A still 
more satisfactory plan is their use to measure progress 
in a single school system. If a class is given the same 
test in September and in the following June, a comparison 
of the results represents the progress during the year. 

In the application of standard tests as a measure of the 
efficiency of classroom teaching several definite rules of 
procedure should be followed if the results are to be at all 
comparable. 

I. Keep the conditions of the tests constant. It is 

better to have them given by the same person. A slight 

change in the directions, or even in the inflection of the 

examiner's voice, will produce corresponding changes in 

the result. 

62 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 63 

II. Follow every detail in the directions exactly. 
If the tests are given by different persons, the directions 
should be printed and a copy given to each examiner. 
Results in penmanship, for instance, will vary if one 
class is told to copy a stanza from the board and another 
class is directed to write as well as it can. 

III. Examiners must be clear as to the nature of the 
test, its purpose, and the use to be made of it. 

IV. External conditions of tests for different classes 
should be identical. A change in the time of day, the 
intervention of the recess period, or interruptions from 
persons entering the room, will produce fluctuations in 
the result. 

V. Be sure that the pupils understand just what they 
are expected to do before allowing them to begin. Use 
illustrations freely to make the directions clear. 

VI. Have all preliminary data complete. Fill out the 
blanks for the subject of the test, school, grade, and the 
pupil's name, at the outset. 

VII. Collect all possible secondary data at the time 
of testing. These should include the teacher's estimate 
of the class or of individual pupils. Be alert to note the 
interest of the pupils, signs of ennui or fatigue. Notice 
their reaction to the test. 

VIII. Brief tests are usually preferable: they conserve 
the time and energy of both pupil and examiner, and 
little additional information is gained by prolonging 
them. 

IX. Select simple tests. Unless testing some quality 
making a second visit necessary, use those that can be 
completed in a single visit. 

X. There are two types of tests: group and individual. 



64 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The first is economical of time and must be used when 
returns are necessary within a short period; e.g., the 
effect of a week's vacation. Individual tests take more 
time but provide data impossible to secure with the 
group. They also eliminate errors due to a failure to 
understand directions. 

XL Select tests that allow a rapid checking of results 
and employ an automatic device if possible. In such a 
test as marking out ^'s the perforated card saves time 
and energy. 

XII. Two measures of results are possible: the time 
limit and the work limit. We can allow the pupil to 
work a certain time and measure his efficiency in terms 
of ground covered (as when he is allowed to perform 
additions for three minutes and the number of operations 
is counted), or we can ask him to perform a hundred 
additions as quickly as possible and estimate his efficiency 
in terms of the time required to complete the task. In 
actual practice the time limit test is usually employed 
because of the ease of measuring. With groups this 
method is almost necessary, but the work limit method 
is psychologically preferable. 

XIII. In the majority of tests a definite time limit 
must be imposed. No indication of value is obtained in 
testing accuracy in addition, if the pupils are told to add 
correctly but are allowed to work as long as they wish. 
In tests of this character the class must be held strictly 
to a set time. In English composition no such limitation 
is necessary. 

XIV. So far as practical, the test should partake of 
the character of a regular lesson. Comments attract- 
ing attention to the unusual character of the exercise 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 65 

distort the results, often to the disadvantage of the class 
standing. 

XV. If the test is related to the teacher's work, she 
should be fully informed of the outcome. This is essential 
in securing her cordial cooperation in the future. No 
teacher is satisfied to spend time over work which has no 
apparent results. 

XVI. Never test unless the use to be made of the in- 
formation obtained is perfectly clear. The mere accumu- 
lation of statistics is worse than useless. 

The superintendent who desires to ascertain the stand- 
ing of his schools in comparison with those of other cities, 
or to make inter-school or inter-room comparisons in his 
own system, has available a wide choice from tests already 
developed with a reasonable degree of scientific accuracy. 
Those most frequently employed are penmanship, arith- 
metic, spelling, composition, and reading. Several at- 
tempts have been made to formulate standard tests for 
geography and history, but with less success than with 
other subjects. 

Penmanship 

Handwriting is one of the simplest and easiest subjects 
to measure. Specimens are readily gathered, little time 
is required to rate them, and no special knowledge or 
skill is necessary since a given specimen need only be 
moved along the standard scale until one of a correspond- 
ing degree of excellence is reached. If it is desirable to 
secure especially accurate returns, each specimen should 
be rated by several persons and the average of their 
judgment used; but the superintendent or principal is 
chiefly concerned with class averages or medians, con- 



66 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

sequently there is no reason for anxiety over a variation 
in the rating of single papers. Experience proves that 
class averages are practically constant even when the 
rating is made by inexperienced examiners. The follow- 
ing table shows the average rating of twelve papers made 
by eleven teachers in their first attempt to use a penman- 
ship scale. 

Comparative Rating — Inexperienced Examiners 

Central 
Paper No. AiBCDEFGHIJ K Tendency 

1 10 8 7 10 10 10 10 8 10 8 10 10 

2 12 12 10 10 12 12 12 13 11 13 11 12 

3 13 12 16 13 14 15 13 12 14 14 14 14 

4 97767779778 7 

5 13 11 12 12 13 10 12 14 12 11 12 12 

6 13 16 15 13 15 16 11 13 11 14 15 14 

7 8 8 8 8 8 6 6 8 9 8 8 8 

8 10 7 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 7 7 7 

9 ..12 11 10 11 12 10 12 10 11 14 13 11 
10... 9 6 7 68 1066 8 8 9 8 
11.... 10 9 6 10 7 7 6 8 9 6 9 8 
12 8 6 7 7 7 6 6 7 8 6 7 7 

Total points 127 113 112 113 120 iTt 108 116 117 116 123 
Average.. 10.6 9.4 9.4 9.4 10 9.7 9 9.6 9.7 9.7 10.2 

The average rating of the twelve papers by eleven 
teachers covers a range of from 9.00 points to 1 0.6, with 
three examiners making exactly the same average, 9.4 
points. The rating of Paper No. 1 shows a central ten- 
dency of 10 points with seven teachers giving this figure. 
Papers seven and eight show still less variation, with eight 
teachers in agreement. The table as given justifies the 
assumption that rating by a scale is more exact than when 
the usual percentage method is employed. 

In the application of any writing scale two elements 
need to be considered: speed and quahty. The speed of 
writing may be measured rather easily by counting the 
number of letters written in a minute. A watch with a 

^ The examiners are indicated by the letters A, B, C, etc. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 67 

second-hand is all that is necessary for timing a class, 
and if several counts are made and the average employed, 
the result is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. 
Quality is measured by comparison with any one of the 
numerous published scales. 

It is advisable to rate each specimen by beginning at 
the lower end of the scale and ascending until a quality 
is reached to which the sample is judged equal. After 
the entire group has been rated in this manner, the 
specimens should be re-rated, beginning at the upper 
limits of the scale and descending until equivalence is 
reached. The average of these two measurements repre- 
sents the final grading. 

As a practical administrative problem the value of 
rating penmanship papers for pupils below the fourth 
grade is open to serious doubt. Previous to that age 
children are not writing, but drawing the letters, and 
excellence depends solely upon painstaking care. At 
about the fourth grade, movement drills begin to pro- 
duce results. Speed and character of line, as well as 
the control necessary for accurate letter formation with 
evenness of slant, are the objects sought, and these are 
what the standard scale seeks to evaluate. 

As a first step in determining penmanship efficiency in 
any school system the frequencies of the different qualities 
of writing should be determined. 

The following table shows a consistent improvement 
from the lower grades to the higher, a condition which in 
itself constitutes a definite evidence of the efficiency of 
the instruction. Instances are not lacking of a lower 
grade equaling or even surpassing a higher grade, but when 
this occurs it is certain that, by one grade or the other, 



68 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

the time spent in penmanship practice is worse than 
wasted. Either the higher grade through lack of a 
definite standard or through defective teaching has been 
merely marking time, or the lower grade has been over- 
drilled. Public school instruction in penmanship is not 

Typical Distributions of 2486 Penmanship Papers — 
Thorndike Scale 



Number Number Number Number 

Papers Papers Papers Papers 

QuaUty Grade V Grade VI Grade VII Grade VIII 

6 2 2 

7 5 7 10 

8 12 26 2 

9 27 55 8 4 

10 78 169 43 10 

11 181 199 102 38 

12 203 175 197 67 

13 151 65 202 96 

14 58 19 95 82 

15 15 6 23 38 

16 2 4 15 

17 2 



Number 

Average 


, . . . 734 
... 11.7 


723 
12.0 


677 
12.4 


352 
13.1 



intended to train writers of copper-plate; the aim is a 
legible business hand, produced with ease at a speed 
which can be continued indefinitely without fatigue. 
Over-practice is valueless, and practice in general, unless 
it gives definite improvement, might better be devoted 
to some other subject in which results can be secured. 

The table shows a consistent overlapping of the grades 
which has been found in every study of this kind. The 
two pupils in Grade V, writing quahty 16, are equal in 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 69 

ability in this subject to the four pupils in Grade VII 
and the 15 pupils in Grade VIII, making the same record. 

The first impression derived from a study of this 
overlapping of grades is that children of equal abihty 
ought to be taught in the same group. Such a conclusion 
would be correct with regard to most subjects, but pen- 
manship requires an individual rather than a group method 
of teaching. It follows, therefore, that uniform class 
ability is not so essential in writing as it would be in 
reading. It would seem to be a fair assumption that 
the variation is due to the difference in the native abilities 
of children and indicates the need for special treatment 
of individuals who fail to improve under class instruction. 
Pupils who have reached a satisfactory standard of 
attainment might well be excused from regular class 
drills with the understanding that so long as they main- 
tained their proficiency no additional practice would be 
required. At present no definite standard has been 
established, although several writing supervisors excuse 
from class drills on the basis of a maximum varying from 
14 to 16. 

The superintendent who desires to compare the records 
of his own pupils with those obtained elsewhere should 
have as extensive data as can be secured. The records 
of pupils in various school systems are given on the fol- 
lowing page. 

A noticeable feature of this table is the close resemblance 
between the medians obtained in widely separated cities 
by different supervisors. Montclair and Elmira show 
high ratings, but these were the direct result of three 
years' application of standard scales accompanied by a 
vigorous campaign to secure definite improvement. The 



70 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



Standards of Penmanship 
iii iv v vi 

City Rat. Sp. Rat. Sp. Rat. Sp. Rat. Sp. 



VII VIII 

Rat. Sp. Rat. Sp. 



Elmira, N.Y.i . . 
Montclair, N.J.i 
Salt Lake, Utah 2.. 9.2 
Butte, Mont.2. 
Rockford, III.2 

Kansas City, M0.2. 8.2 

4074 pupils 3 8.2 

Ashland, Oregon * . 
Cleveland, Ohio *,^ 
12 cities'*,* 

South Bend, Kan.4,6 40 
56 cities' 34,000 

pupils ^ 42 

Freeman standards 47 





11.7 


12 


12.4 .. 




12 


12.7 . 


13.8 . . 


. . 10.7 


11 


. 11.3 . 


12.2 . . 


8.8 


8.9 . 


11.6 . 


11.2 .. 


8.5 


8.8 . 


9.8 . 


10.3 . . 



48 
38 



8.7 



60 
47 



45 40 50 



9.4 
9.3 

37 
45 
43 

50 



43.8 
48 



45.8 
50 



51.2 50.5 
56 55 



70 

57 

62 

57 

55 

59.1 
65 



9.9 
9.8 

44 
48 
47 



80 
65 



69 
65 



10.6 90 
10.4 75 
46 



13.1 
14.3 
12.8 
12.1 
11.1 



10.9 83 
54 



50 
53 



73 
75 



55 
57 



78 
83 



50 60 60 65 60 70 



54.5 
59 



62.{ 
72 



58.9 67.9 62.8 73 
64 80 70 90 



1 Local scale average. 2 Thorndike scale median. ^ Starch average. ■* Ayres scale average. 
5 Cleveland Survey Report. ^ F. N. Freeman, Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society 
for the Study of Education, Part 1. ' Educational Tests and Measurements, Monroe. 

effectiveness of the efforts may be judged from the fact 
that three years earlier the Montclair ratings v^ere: 
Grade V, 8.6, Grade VI, 8.6, Grade VII, 9.2, Grade 
VIII, 9.2. The earlier ratings illustrate the previous 
statement that in some instances grade averages shov^ 
little improvement in efficiency as the result of a year of 
additional practice. 

A table showing equivalency of scores for the Ayres, 
Freeman, and Thorndike Scales has been prepared by 



Relative Value of 


Scores 


ON 


Three Different Scales 


Grades 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII VIII 


Ayres 


... 44 


47 


50 


55 


59 


64 70 


Freeman 


... 17.9 


18.4 


19 


20 


20.8 


22 23 


Thorndike .... 


. . . 9.36 


9.75 


10.13 10.76 


11.34 


11.89 12.66 



Professor W. S. Monroe. This makes it possible to 
translate scores secured by one scale into terms of the 
other two scales. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 71 

Spelling 

Ability to spell correctly is essential to every pupil, 
and any failure reacts unfavorably upon the reputation 
of the school, because business men, impatient of spelling 
errors in graduates, gain the idea that the whole edu- 
cational structure is permeated with weakness. The 
responsibility for spelling failures apparently rests on 
the attempt to teach a large number of words with no 
reference to any future use that the pupil may make of 
them. As a result of this dispersion of effort, the drill 
on words that he actually uses is neglected. The ex- 
haustive study, made by Dr. Ayres, of personal and 
business letters shows the comparatively small number 
of words actually used in correspondence. His study 
covered 23,629 words, and the table given indicates the 
frequency of their appearance. 

Number of Separate Words and Their Aggregate Number 
OF Appearances by Eighths 



One eighth 

One fourth 

Three eighths 

One half 

Five eighths 

Three fourths 

Seven eighths 

Eighth eighths 

According to Dr. Ayres' investigation one eighth of 
all the appearances were furnished by the three most 
common words /, the, and and. 



Number of 


Total Number 


Separate Words 


of Appearances 


3 


2,954 


9 


5,907 


21 


8,861 


43 


11,815 


99 


14,768 


226 


17,721 


542 


20,675 


2001 


23,629 



72 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

In the face of such facts as these the absolute futihty 
of trying to teach elementary school children the correct 
spelling of the ten or fifteen thousand words appearing in 
many spelling books is at once apparent. 

To determine spelling ability for the most common 
thousand words in English writing, Dr. Ayres conducted 
an investigation covering 1,400,000 spelKngs by 70,000 
children in 84 cities throughout the country. These 
1000 words were then arranged in the form of a standard 
scale and furnish a means for determining the compara- 
tive spelling efficiency in any school system.^ Several 
other investigations have been made sufficiently extensive 
to justify their use by any superintendent to measure the 
spelling efficiency of his own school. Two of these. One 
Hundred Spelling Demons, Dr. W. F. Jones, South Dakota 

Spelling Attainments in Different Cities, Ayres Scale, 
Per Cent Correct 

Grade H HI IV V VI VII Vm Average 

Springfield, Ill.i 70 65 70 72 68 73 75 70 

Butte, Mont.2 86.2 81.8 78.7 84.5 75 76.2 89.4 80.3 

Salt Lake City, Utah3 89.9 78.8 87.6 86.8 87.1 82.2 86 

Oakland, Cal.3 60.4 66.7 75.9 84.7 80.2 79.7 76.3 76.5 

Ashland, Ore.'' 86 73 81 88 61 73 66 75 

Topeka, Kans 71.1 76.5 76.4 76.8 66.4 62 71.5 

New Orleans, La 65.2 76.3 79.5 79.2 77.6 74.2 74.9 

Montclair, N.J 67.6 70.4 76.9 83.1 80.3 74.1 75.3 75.3 

Johnstown, Pa 82.5 77.4 74.8 78.9 75.5 69.3 76.5 77.4 

Cleveland, Ohio 5... 74 78 73 75 78 76 80 76 

Des Moines, Iowa 6.. 48 56 68 74 70 74 65 64.2 

84 American Cities ^. 77 77 76 76 76 76 76 76 

^ Springfield Survey Report. ^ Butte Survey Report. ^ Salt Lake City Survey 
Report. '* Ashland Survey Report. ^ Cleveland Survey Report. ^ Report by 
J. W. Studebaker. 

^ Spelling Scale, Leonard Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 73 

University, and The Buckingham Tests , Dr. B. R. Bucking- 
ham, New York Statistician, Department of Education, 
are used here. 

After the relative position in spelKng for any school 
system is determined, a complete understanding of the 
situation requires a distribution of the scores. Informa- 
tion of this character rarely appears. 

Percentage Distribution Spelling Scores, New Orleans, La., 
AND Oakland, Cal., Ayres Scale 

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 

New Orleans, La., 

17,642 children. 20 21 18 13 10 7 5 3 2 1 .4 
Oakland, Cal. 

12,303 children. 21 22.5 18.4 13.8 8.4 6.2 4.2 2.7 1.5 .9 .4 

The study made by Dr. J. B. Sears in Oakland, Cal., 
indicates that nationality plays a smaller part in spelling 
than teachers are accustomed to believe. 

Percentage or CmLDREN of Native and Foreign-born Parents 
receiving Different Standings 

Children Standings Avg. 

Included 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% St. 

All of Grade VIII.. 20.4 19 18.7 13.9 10.1 8.4 4.1 3.7 1.3 .3 .1 76 
Foreign in Grade 

VIII 17.6 18.9 18.9 13.5 12.3 9 4.5 3.4 1.2 .5 .2 74 

All of Grade v.... 33.4 25.5 16.5 11.4 5.5 3.7 2 1.3 .4 .2 .1 84 

Foreign in Grade V. 30.9 25.9 16.8 12.1 6.6 3.9 1.6 1.5 .7 .7 .3 82 

All of Grade III... 12.6 17.8 15.3 13.5 9.8 9.1 7.7 5.7 4 2.7 1.8 66 
Foreign in Grade 

III 9.2 16.9 15.6 13.6 10.2 9.8 7.9 5.9 4.3 3.8 2.8 63 

The difference in the average for all groups, representing 
as it does from 2% to 3%, is by no means a sufficient 
variation to justify the all-too-common assumption that 
such children are a serious handicap to the schools. 



74 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The list of words compiled by Dr. F. W. Jones of South 
Dakota University and called by him the One Hundred 
Spelling Demons of the English Language , was used as a 
test by J. W. Studebaker in the Des Moines schools with 
the following results: 

Elementary Schools, "One Hundred Demons" 



III 


IV 


V VI VII 


VIII 


No. Des Moines pupils. 833 
Per cent words correct. 52.8 
Record of 19 cities 51.2 


1488 

63.8 

67.2 


1571 1183 1101 
80.8 82.6 88.3 
80.3 84.3 89.1 


906 

92.3 

93 


High School Record 


', "One Hundred Demons" 






LX 


X XI XII Average 




Des Moines 


. 93.7 
. 94 


94.9 95.7 97.3 95 
95.3 96 97.2 95.3 




19 cities 





In the same report Dr. Studebaker gives the results 
from the use of the Buckingham scale. 

Buckingham Test on 50 Words — Per Cent Correct 





HI 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII Average 


Des Moines 


63.3 


82.8 
77.5 


71.7 
63.8 


80.4 
75.9 


63.5 

57.7 


73 2 7? 4 


15 cities 


54.5 


70.1 66.2 







The fact that these three scales have had an application 
sufhciently extensive to establish standards with a reason- 
able degree of accuracy enables a superintendent to use all 
of them in his own schools, thus determining relative 
efficiency with less likelihood of error than would be 
possible with a single scale. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 75 

Arithmetic 

The experimental studies of Mr. S. A. Courtis in 
arithmetic have been of such an extensive character as 
to provide standards of unusual value which, applied as 
they have been to thousands of children in all parts of 
the country, leave little doubt of the correctness of the 
conclusions drawn from them. Their simplicity enables 
teachers to use them in determining the needs and progress 
of their pupils and the efhciency of the methods of teach- 
ing employed; and they furnish a ready means for diag- 
nosing the weakness of any class, besides measuring the 
success of the devices employed in correcting it. 

The direction sheets accompanying the Courtis tests 
not only show the successive steps to be followed but 
also suggest effective charts for making the results clear 
even to the most casual observer. The tests include the 
four fundamental operations as well as exercises calculated 
to show reasoning power. ^ Two series, A and B, have 
been published, the latter being designed to correct some 
of the defects which experience had shown to exist in the 
former. The B series furnishes standards in column 
addition, provision for which had been overlooked before. 

The chief objections to the A test are: 

1. The single number combinations in fundamental 
operations eliminate column addition and carrying. 
This omission is of a distinct advantage to the lower 
grades. 

2. In the reasoning tests, speed in solving the problems 
is not the only factor. The child's ability to read them 

^ Copies of these tests may be obtained from S. A. Courtis, 82 Eliot Street, I 
Detroit, Michigan. 



76 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

largely determines the result, and thus the lower grades 
are at a disadvantage. 

3. The speed reasoning test No. 6 allows a pupil to 
guess at the proper sign for the answer with the likeUhood 
of 25% of accuracy. 

Courtis Standards, A Series, June, 1913 



Test 


1 2 


3 


4 


5 6 
Att's. 


R'ts. 


Att's. 


7 
R'ts. 


8 

Att's. 


R'ts. 


Grade III . . 


..26 19 


16 


16 


63 2.5 


1.5 


5 


1.7 


2.5 


.5 


'* IV... 


,..34 25 


23 


23 


75 3.5 


1.8 


7 


3.5 


2.9 


.7 


" v.... 


,..42 31 


30 


30 


84 4.2 


2.6 


9 


5.2 


3.1 


1 


" VI . . . 


..50 38 


37 


37 


92 4.9 


3.5 


11 


6.7 


3.4 


1.4 


" VII . . 


.. 58 44 


41 


44 


100 5.6 


4.5 


12.5 


8.2 


3.7 


1.9 


" VIII . 


. . 63 49 


45 


49 


108 6.4 


5.7 


14 


9.4 


4 


2.5 


Timei 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 6 


6 


12 


12 


6 


6 



4. The use of the same tests for all grades is likely to 
prove too easy for the older pupils and too difficult for 
the younger. However, the use of a common test for 
all classes shows whether or not the grades develop pro- 
gressively from the lowest to the highest in a uniform 
curve. 

The success of two cities in meeting these standards 
set by Mr. Courtis is shown in the following tables. 

On the basis of the knowledge gained from the use 
of Series A, the B test was devised and has practically 
supplanted the earlier one. In the addition test the 
figures are so chosen that all the fundamental combina- 
tions are employed. The examples used show the child's 
ability in column addition and in carrying, as well as in 
speed and accuracy. 

^ Time allowance in minutes. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 



77 



Results of Courtis Tests, Series A, in Two Cities 

^^fTT i 2 3 4 5 6 7 S~ 

^^^\ Att's. R'ts. Att's. R'ts. Att's. R'ts. 

Boise, Idaho 

Grade III 33 24 21 21 79 

" IV 43 34 34 32 92 4.2 2.5 7.9 5.1 .. .. 

" V 46 38 37 37 97 4.2 3.2 8.9 6.5 3.5 1.2 

" VI 53 44 42 44 106 5.3 4.7 10.3 8.8 3.7 2.3 

" VII 63 50 51 51 117 6.3 5.8 12 8.8 4.3 3.3 

" VIII 65 50 52 53 122 7.4 7 13.4 10.2 5.2 4.1 

Montclair, NJ. 

Grade IV 35 26 22 22 77 3.7 2.6 7.4 4 3 1 

" V 46 36 33 28 90 4.6 3.9 9.7 6.5 3.5 1.7 

" VI 52 40 36 37 100 5.6 4.6 12.1 8.7 4.2 2 

" VII 56 47 39 39 105 6 5.9 13.1 10 4.5 3.1 

" VIII 63 47 39 44 112 6.1 5.5 15.1 10.3 4.5 3.1 



With reference to the standards which he has proposed 
Courtis says: 

''The speeds set as standards are approximately the 
average speeds at which the children of the different 
grades have been found to work when tested at the end 
of the year, when for any one grade a random selection 
of 5000 scores from children in schools of all types and 
kinds is used as a basis of judgment. 

" Standard accuracy is perfect work, 100 per cent. This 
is a tentative standard only, as there is available very 
little information in regard to the factors that determine 
accuracy and the effects of more efficient training. 

''At present in addition and multiplication it is only 
very exceptional work in which the median rises above 
80 per cent accuracy, while in subtraction and division 
the limiting level is 90 per cent. 



78 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

" Standard speeds are not likely to change greatly; 
standard accuracy is surely destined to approach much 
more nearly 100 per cent than present work would indi- 
cate. Standard scores are not only goals to be reached; 
they are limits not to be exceeded. It seems as foolish to 
overtrain sl child as to under train him. All direct drill 
work should, in the judgment of the writer, be discontinued 
once the individual has reached standard levels. If his 
abilities develop further through incidental training, well 
and good, but the superintendent who, by repeated raising 
of standards, forces teachers and pupils to spend each 

Courtis Standard Scores Series B (I) 







Addition 






Subtraction 


Grade 




speed 


Accuracy 


Speed 


Accuracy 




M 


s 


M 


S 


M 


S 


M S 


III 


6.3 


4 


41 


100 


5.6 


5 


49 100 


IV 


7.4 


6 


64 


100 


7.4 


7 


80 100 


V 


8.6 


8 


70 


100 


9. 


9 


83 100 


VI 


9.8 


10 


73 


100 


10.3 


11 


85 100 


VII 


10.9 


11 


75 


100 


11.6 


12 


86 100 


VIII 


11.6 


12 


76 


100 


12.9 


13 


87 100 






Multiplication 






Division 




Grade 


< 


Speed 


Accuracy 


Speed 


Accuracy 




M 


s 


M 


s 


M 


S 


M S 


III 


.8 





— 


— 


.6 





— — 


IV 


6.2 


6 


67 


100 


4.6 


4 


57 100 


V 


7.5 


8 


75 


100 


6.1 


6 


77 100 


VI 


9.1 


9 


78 


100 


8.2 


8 


87 100 


VII 


10.2 


10 


80 


100 


9.6 


10 


90 100 


VIII 


11.5 


11 


81 


100 


10.7 


11 


91 100 



Key M — Adjusted Median 

S — Score Adopted as Standard 
(1) Courtis, S. A. Third, Fourth, and Fifth Annual Accounting, 
82 Eliot Street, Detroit, Michigan. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 79 

year a larger percentage of time and effort upon the mere 
mechanical skills, makes as serious a mistake as the 
superintendent who is too lax in his standards." 

In establishing median speed and accuracy Mr. Courtis 
employed thousands of individual scores from tests given 
in May and June, 1915 and 1916, to approximately equal 
numbers of classes in large and small school systems. 

Median State Scores — Courtis Tests — Series B 



Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division 

Speed Ace. Speed Ace. Speed Ace. Speed Ace. 

Fourth Grade 

Indiana 

Kansas 6.4 51 6.5 63 5.2 55 3.8 40 

Iowa 6.2 56 6.8 74 5.8 61 4.2 59 

Minnesota 5.7 52 4.8 55 5.2 56 5.3 38 

Fifth Grade 

Kansas 6.8 63 7.4 78 6.6 69 4.7 67 

Indiana 7.2 59 7.5 71 6 61 5 65 

Iowa 7.4 62 8.2 80 7 70 5.5 74 

Minnesota 6.9 60 7.6 73 6.5 67 4.4 67 

Sixth Grade 

Kansas 6.9 65 8.8 82 8.1 74 6.4 82 

Indiana 8.3 64 8.7 77 7.5 68 6.1 79 

Iowa 8.5 67 9.7 83 8.6 76 7 83 

Minnesota 7.7 62 8.4 76 7.6 71 5.6 78 

Seventh Grade 

Kansas 7.7 67 10.2 83 9.5 75 8.4 87 

Indiana 8.9 64 9.9 80 8.5 71 7.8 84 

Iowa 9.1 68 10.7 84 9.9 78 8.5 88 

Minnesota ;. 8.2 65 9.8 79 8.7 75 6.7 83 

Eighth Grade 

Kansas 9.8 78 11.7 85 10.2 81 9.8 88 

Indiana 9.5 67 10.9 82 9.9 74 9.7 87 

Iowa 10 72 12 86 11.5 81 10.8 91 

Minnesota 9.2 69 11.2 86 10.7 81 8.6 89 



8o METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

In the bulletin containing the Second and Third Annual 
Reports of the Bureau of Educational Measurements 
and Standards of the State Normal School at Emporia, 
Kansas, Dr. Walter S. Monroe makes a detailed report 
giving the median scores for cities in Kansas, Indiana, 
Iowa, and Minnesota. The Kansas medians represent 
25 cities in that state, the Iowa medians 52 cities, the 
Indiana medians 22 cities, and the Minnesota medians 
16 cities. All tests were given in May, 1916. In these 
tables, ''speed" means the number of examples done in 
the specified time, and ''accuracy" means the per cent 
of the examples in which the correct answer was obtained. 

The Butte Survey Report gives the median scores 
made by pupils in Detroit, Boston, a group of smaller 
cities, and Butte, in working the same examples in the 
same amount of time. The "Rights" only are given. 

Median Scores, Series B, Courtis Tests 

Grades V yT VII Vm 

Addition 

Detroit (1315 pupils) 3.9 4.6 5.4 6.7 

Boston (20,441 pupils) 3.7 4.9 5.6 7.8 

Other cities! (3618 pupils)... 39 44 4,7 5,5 

Butte (573 pupils) 2.9 3.4 3.8 5.3 

Salt Lake City ' 4.1 6.4 6.9 8.5 

Rockford, 111 3.5 4.5 5.8 6.3 

Santa Clara Co., Cal 1.8 2.3 3.5 4.3 

Subtraction 

Detroit 5.5 6.2 7.3 9.5 

Boston 4.9 6.3 6.9 8.6 

Other cities 4.5 6.1 7.8 8.4 

Butte 5.5 5.8 7.1 9.8 

Salt Lake 5.2 7.8 8.8 9.8 

Rockford 4.3 5.7 7.6 8.6 

Santa Clara 2.8 3.5 5.2 6.8 

1 Salt Lake City Survey Report. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 8i 

Median Scores, Series B, Courtis Tests {Continued) 

~~ Grades V VI VH Vm 

Multiplication 

Detroit 3.8 4.8 6 7.5 

Boston Z.Z 4.8 5.1 6.5 

Other cities 2.6 4.5 5.2 6.4 

Butte 4.1 5 6.5 8.1 

Salt Lake 4.3 5.3 7.1 8.3 

Rockford 3.6 4.5 6.1 6.9 

Santa Clara 1.2 2.5 3.4 4.9 

Division 

Detroit 2.7 4.4 7.1 8.8 

Boston 2 Z.Z 5.1 6.9 

Other cities 2.3 4.3 5.8 6.3 

Butte 3.6 4.3 7.2 10.2 

Salt Lake 3 5.5 7.7 9.5 

Rockford 1.9 3.4 4.9 6.9 

Santa Clara 5 1.6 3.2 4.5 

When Series B is used and tests in reasoning seem 
advisable, the Stone tests are sometimes employed. The" 
standard formulated by Dr. Stone and those reported in 
the Salt Lake Survey and the Butte Survey Reports are 
as follows: 



Stone Reasoning Tests 



Grades V VI VII VIII 

Stone Standard 

26 cities 5.5 

Salt Lake City, Utah 3.7 6.4 8.6 10.5 

Butte, Mont 2.2 3.9 5.8 7.7 

La Porte, Ind 3.4 4.6 8.1 8.6 

BrookHne, Mass. .2 4 6.2 

Starch Standards 7.8 9.4 11 

Boston, 1916 4 6.4 

1 Arithmetical Abilities, Dr. C. W. Stone, Teachers College, N. Y. 

2 Brookline Survey Report. 



82 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The possibilities of the standard test for measuring the 
arithmetical skill of pupils are by no means exhausted 
by these tests. It remains to devise equally efficient 
measures in fractions, decimals, percentage, and in 
problems of everyday life. 

Composition 

' In the field of English composition appears a greater 
diversity in the quality of the work than in almost any 
other subject. Teachers have recognized the funda- 
mental importance to the child of facility of expression in 
the mother tongue and have devoted their best efforts to 
developing in the pupils the power to state their thoughts 
accurately and effectively. Much of the time spent in 
this way has been wasted because definiteness in aim was 
lacking. Writing on subjects that have no vital connec- 
tion with the child's experience is well-nigh valueless. 
It is only when the writing has back of it a clear-cut 
purpose, that results are obtained commensurate with the 
expenditure of effort. 

Realizing that some method for estimating the quality 
of English composition is an essential step in its improve- 
ment. Dr. J. M. Rice seized upon the reproduction story 
as a satisfactory measure. The details of the plan were 
published in the Forum, October and December, 1903, 
and later in his book. Scientific Management in Education. 
The scheme as carried out by Dr. Rice consists of reading 
to the pupils the story of Pestalozzi's school at Stanz, 
after which they reproduce the story in their own words. 
The scale is made of five specimens of the reproduced 
story, to which arbitrary values are assigned. Any set 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 



83 



of papers is graded by distributing them into five groups 
corresponding in literary value to the five papers of the 
scale. Experience proves that this may be done with no 
greater error than would occur in marking a set of papers 
in an exact science such as arithmetic. The test included 
8300 children in nine different cities with the following 
results: 



Grade 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


% 


City 


School Class 
Average 


Class 
Average 


Class 
Average 


Class 
Average 


Class 
Average 


Amer. 
Pupils 



Composition Results, Rice Test 

V 

Class 
Vverag 

1 1 12.5 23.7 36.8 46.5 

II 1 9.9 13.1 33.8 42.9 

II 2 10.6 20.9 25.4 38.8 

III 1 13.4 17.7 31.8 49.4 

IV 1 14.3 22.2 35.4 43.4 

V 1 15.5 16 31.2 44.5 

II 3 .. 22.5 28.7 34.8 

II 4 6.5 7 26.8 29.7 

II 5 5.6 15.7 23.3 39.2 

1 2 11.5 14.3 30.5 25.7 

V 2 2.5 8.7 19.9 23.8 

V 3 7.5 5.1 19.5 24.4 

V 4 .. 5.2 15.4 29.8 

VI 1 . . 4.8 26.8 23.2 

III 2 2 6.8 21.2 25.1 

Vtl 1 2.8 9.1 16.5 18 

III 3 1.7 9.5 14.8 26.5 

VIII 1 6 7.7 12.2 27 

IV 2 5.6 13.7 16.7 24.2 

IX 1 5.7 11.6 16.1 26.1 

IX 2 4.5 7.8 12.7 21 

VII 2 .. 5.7 15.5 15.7 

General average 6.8 12.2 23.2 30.6 

Rice Standard 10 15 25 37.5 



70 


81 


76.2 


71 


73.8 


83 


56.6 


28 


56 


74 


51.7 


85 


56 


.. 


51.1 


64 


41.7 


6 


40.5 


74 


53.2 


56 


46.6 


75 


42.5 


15 


35 


85 


35.6 


71 


45.7 


71 


36.5 


34 


38.7 


64 


35.5 


58 


32 


67 


29.6 


43 


29.4 


37 



47 
50 



84 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

While a scale of this character may lack the scientific 
precision of later standard scales, a somewhat extended 
use of this method of measuring composition justifies 
the conclusion that it furnishes a simple and reasonably 
exact measure of the quality of composition in any school 
system. The writer is so thoroughly convinced of this 
fact that he has used the same plan in the lower grades 
with excellent results. 

Some of the stories given the third and fourth grades are: 
The Dog and his Shadow, The Two Goats, Dick and his 
Cat, The Grasshopper and the Ant, The Cat and the Mon- 
key. The plan followed is that used by Dr. Rice. Five 
standard papers, numbered from one to five in the order 
of their excellence, constitute the scale. To read a set of 
papers, placing each in a pile representing the proper 
standard, is a comparatively simple matter. The system of 
estimating rests on the fact that any written composition 
makes a definite impression as a whole. Of a picture we say 
instinctively that it is good, or passable, or bad, without 
stopping to analyze it as to proportion, perspective, color, 
or any other detail. Until one has actually tried the 
experiment with thousands of papers, it is difficult to 
believe that English work may be treated in the same way 
— judged by a single impression of the entire paper. It 
is the established fact that a theme may be so judged 
as to render detailed scrutiny unnecessary, and thus a great 
saving of time in rating papers may be effected. 

The scheme of rating is best illustrated by giving an 
original story and a representative paper in each of the 
five groups; ''5" is given only to a paper which, besides 
being correct in every way, shows a touch of originality 
in treatment. There are few ''5's" in an entire city. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 85 

Grades III and IV 

The Cat and the Monkey 

(Original) 

A cat and a monkey saw some nuts roasting in a fire. The monkey 
told the cat to pull them out with her paw. She got one out, but the 
fire hurt her. 

The monkey told her how clever she was, so she kept on trying 
till all the nuts were pulled out. Then she turned around to show 
the monkey how her paw was burned, and found him eating the 
last nut. 

Standard Five 

A cat and a monkey were sitting in front of a fireplace where 
some nuts were roasting. "Put your paw in and pull some of those 
nuts out," said the monkey. Without thinking of anything but the 
nut, the cat did so and then cried out as the fire burned her. "Oh, 
never mind a little pain," said the monkey. "You are very clever. 
Try another." So the cat kept on pulling out one after another 
till she had them all. Then she turned around to show the monkey 
her poor, burned paw and found the greedy animal eating the last 
nut. 

Standard Four 

A cat and a monkey saw some nuts roasting in the ashes. The 
monkey said, "Put your paw in and pull them out." The cat did 
so, and got one out. The monkey told her how clever she was. 
She got them all out, and turned around to show the monkey how 
she had burned her paw. She saw the monkey eating the last nut. 

Standard Three 

Once there was a cat and a monkey, and they saw some nuts 
roasting in a fire. The monkey said, "if you will put your paw in 
the fire we will have some nuts, to eat. So the cat did so, when 
the cat was getting the last nut, the monkey had eat all the nuts 
up. And told her how clever she was. 



86 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Standard Two 

One day a cat and a monkey saw some nuts roasting in the fire. 
So he said to the cat. She sould pout in her parr and take out the 
nuts. So she pout in her parr and took out one nut. And she brun 
her parw. The monkey said she was doing well. So she went on 
and on until she got all the nuts out. And then she show him her 
parw how brun her. 

Standard One 

The cat was getting nut out of over was roasting. The cat was 
clever and was geting nut of over and the cat pas got brun. And 
he care get nut of the over. At at he got the last one the cat shone 
the monkey his brun pas. 

It is not assumed that the scale as suggested is scientifi- 
cally exact. A large number of expert judgments or an 
extensive application of the scale is necessary to deter- 
mine exact intervals; but nevertheless it does provide 
a simple means of estimating roughly the relative profi- 
ciency of any class or its progress from the beginning to 
the close of the year. The results obtained by the use 
of the test are as follows: 



Reproduction 


— The Cat 


AND THE Monkey: 


Grade III 


City 


Standard 


City 
Average 


No. of 
Classes 


No. 
above 
Standard 


No. 

below Highest 
Standard Record 


Lowest 
Record 


Brockton, 


Mass. . 




12 


8.6 


31 


8 


23 


17 


.9 


Elmira, N. 


Y. . . . 




12 


14.7 


16 


11 


5 


38 


3 


Montclair, 


N.J. . 




12 


15.7 


12 


8 


4 


30.5 


1.8 


Grade IV 


Brockton, 


T^Iass. . 




25 


23 


30 


10 


16 


38.3 


11.2 


Elmira, N 


. Y. . . . 




25 


31 


17 


15 


3 


53 


13 


Montclair, 


N.J. 




25 


29.7 


11 


8 


3 


47.2 


15.9 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 87 

The Hillegas and the Harvard-Newton Scale have been 
extensively employed, and the results of their application 
in a few cities follow. Copies of the Hillegas Scale may 
be obtained from Teachers' College, New York City, 
and of the Harvard-Newton Scale from Harvard Uni- 
versity Press, Cambridge, Mass. 

Records, Hillegas Scale 

City Grades IV V Vl VH Vm 

Butte, Mont.i 2.34 2.87 3.40 3.75 4.11 

Salt Lake City, Utah 2 2.9 3.1 3.8 4.4 5.4 

Maryland and N. Y. City 2 5.15 . . 5.7 to 7 . . 

Delaware Co., Ohio 2 . . . . . . 3.94 

Delaware City 2 . . . . . . 5.27 

La Porte, Ind.3 4.1 4.4 5 5.8 6.8 

^ Butte Survey Report. 2 ^q\i Lake City Survey Report. ^ Indiana Univer- 
sity Bulletin. 

Distribution of Composition Scores by Grades — 
Hillegas Scale ^ 

Grades IV V VI Vlfj VIII 

Rated at 

1.83 

2.60 

3.69 

4.74 

5.85 

6.75 

7.72 



3 


1 


, . 


2 


1 


79 


46 


31 


17 


9 


66 


86 


67 


63 


32 


30 


49 


65 


84 


39 


3 


18 


35 


68 


43 




1 


23 


19 


22 






6 


7 
2 


6 

2 



Total papers 181 201 227 262 154 1025 

Median score 2.34 2.87 3.40 3.75 4.11 

Comparatively few statistics of the Harvard-Newton 
Composition tests are available, a fact which indicates 
that teachers have found the scale too difficult to use. 

^ Butte Survey Report. 



88 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The median records from four cities are given in the 
following table: 

Composition Achievements — Harvard-Newton Scale 

Grades VI VII Vm 

Brookline, Mass 61 . . 70 

Newton, Mass 75 7S 

Bloomington, Ind 61 67 

Port Townsend, Wash 53 58 



Reading 

In estimating the child's mastery of reading, three ele- 
ments must be considered: First, the degree of compre- 
hension of the material read; second, the speed of reading; 
third, the quality of the oral reading, which includes 
accuracy, inflection, etc. The opinion of the school re- 
specting the comparative importance of these three ele- 
ments has changed radically during the past few years. 
There was a time when the elocutionary side of reading 
was stressed as of supreme value; but as a practical art 
reading aloud is of little importance in the life of any per- 
son. It ranks rather as an accomplishment, while abihty 
to get the thought from the printed page is absolutely 
essential to the pupil's success in his school work. Speed 
of reading is essential, since the weight of available evi- 
dence shows that speed and comprehension are closely 
correlated. These two elements are comparatively easy 
to measure, especially the element of speed. Since both 
of them are determined largely by the child's vocabulary 
it follows logically that tests of vocabulary, speed, and 
comprehension will serve as an adequate measure of a 
pupil's reading ability. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 89 

One of the recent comprehension tests is that of F. J. 
Kelly, of Emporia, Kansas, which consists of short 
paragraphs containing questions to be answered or 
directions to be followed. A time limit is fixed, and the 
degree of the child's comprehension is indicated by the 
accuracy with which the directions are followed or the 
questions answered in the given time. 

The median attainments for over 100,000 children in 
different sections of the country are given in the Second 
and Third Annual Reports of the Bureau of Educational 
Measurements and Standards, Emporia, Kansas, Dr. 
Walter S. Monroe. They furnish a standard for the 
guidance of schools using the test. 

Median Scores — Kansas Silent Reading Test 

Grades III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 

Kansas 4.9 9 13.4 13.7 16.1 20.1 24.3 25.2 26.5 28.4 

Iowa 6.2 9.5 14.6 14.8 17.7 20.6 

S. Atlantic 

States 6 9.2 13.9 11.6 14.5 15.8 21.8 20.7 25 39.3 

N. Atlantic 

States 5.3 9.6 12.9 13.6 16.7 17.8 24.8 28.9 22.8 27 

S.Central States 4.7 8.4 12.3 11.8 15.4 19.2 22.4 24.5 25 29.2 

N.CentralStates 5.1 9.3 13.1 13.6 16.2 18.2 21.5 25.7 26.5 31.8 

Western States. 6.1 10.6 14.4 15 18 20.6 23.5 26 26.4 31.4 

Total 5.3 9.5 13.2 13.9 16.2 19.2 22.9 25.6 26.5 29.7 

Similar records from four single cities provide a check 
upon the more extensive study given above. 

Median Score — Kansas Silent Reading Test 

G?^d^^liT TV V vi vii viir 

Kansas City, Mo 6 9.9 13.7 13.4 16.5 18.8 

New Orleans, La 4.8 8 12 11.3 15 19.1 

Montclair, N.J 10.4 11 . . 18.4 

Rockford, 111 4.5 10.5 13.1 12.2 19.2 19 



90 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The Kelly tests are easy to administer, and the scoring 
is a very simple matter. It is by no means certain that 
ability in reading is the only element involved. Some of 
the steps in the scale are virtually puzzles. Others in- 
volve an application of arithmetic which troubles some 
children. 

In the Starch tests two elements are taken into consid- 
eration: speed and comprehension. Reading selections 
suitable to the capacity of the children are distributed. 
At a given signal they begin to read silently and are 
allowed to continue for exactly thirty seconds. At the 
end of that time they turn the blanks and reproduce as 
exactly as they can what they have read. Speed is 
measured by counting the number of words read in a 
second, and comprehension by the number of words re- 
produced which correctly give the thought. Dr. Starch 
suggests that a considerable amount of time may be saved 
in scoring comprehension by counting the actual number 
of words written by the class and reducing the average by 
seven per cent instead of rejecting the extraneous words 
introduced by individual pupils. The standard of attain- 
ment for this test is based upon the record of over 6000 
pupils in 27 schools in different cities. 

Speed and Comprehension — Starch Tests ^ 

Grade I II 

Speed (words per sec- 
ond) 1.5 1.8 

Comprehension (words 

written) 15 20 

^ Educational Measurements, Da.me\ Starch, The Macmillan Company. 



Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


2.1 


2.4 


2.8 


3.2 


3.6 


4 


24 


28 


33 


38 


45 


50 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 91 

The Salt Lake City Survey Report gives the results 
obtained by using the Courtis tests designed to show the 
rate of silent reading and ability to remember what is 
read. The first test consisted of a story, "Bessie's Ad- 
ventures." The children were asked to read silently 
with as great speed and as great care as possible. Exactly 
one minute was allowed, and at the expiration of this 
time the pupils indicated the last word read. The num- 
ber of words read in the minute were then counted and 
constituted the score. In the second test no time limit 
was enforced. The children were given the same story 
and requested to check from memory the one word, out 
of three enclosed in a parenthesis, which was used in the 
original story. These three-word parentheses were scat- 
tered freely through the story and were intended to show 
the pupil's memory of the exact words read. In the 
first story, for instance, the clause "Before the frightened 
little girl could decide what to do" occurred. This 
appeared in the second story as "Before the (frightened 
terrified poor) little girl could (decide think know) what 
to do." A child making an accurate score would check 
"frightened" in the first parenthesis and "decide" in 
the second parenthesis. The total number of words 
checked correctly represents the pupil's score in ability 
to recall correctly what has been read. 

Number Words Read per Minute — Courtis Tests 

f-^,,^f,v Salt Lake 
Grade SSrH City 
^ S^^"^^'^^ Median 

VIII.T. 200 209 

VII 185 219 

VI 160 212 

V 130 191 



92 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Memory Test Medians ^ 

Grade Points Read Points Correct Per Cent Correct 

VIII 22.7 18 79.3 

VII 23.9 17.4 72.8 

VI 22.7 17.5 77.1 

V 20.8 15.5 74 

Tests of the character indicated in this chapter will not 
take the place of helpful, constructive supervision: their 
proper function is to determine how much progress is 
being made from year to year by the schools as a whole, 
to reveal the success or failure of the methods employed, 
and to furnish a basis for any change in the fundamental 
policy of the school system. When administered in this 
manner they are more valuable than the old type of 
examination and should meet with the hearty cooperation 
of the classroom teacher. 

One of the factors in silent reading is the ability to 
associate the printed word with its meaning. The visual 
vocabulary scale devised by Professor E. L. Thorndike, 
of Teachers' College, furnishes a test of this power. 
Details for the method of scoring and use of the scale are 
given in Teachers' College Record for September, 1914. 

Median Scores — Visual Vocabulary Tests 

f. , Total for Nine Cities 2 „. }^^^^^^.,. , 

""^ No. Pupils Median ^ ^.ght^.en QUes^.^^ 

Ill ... 1650 4 

IV 385 4.43 2095 5.26 

V 355 5.30 2028 6 

VI 411 6.18 1860 6.66 

VII 354 7 1625 7.29 

VIII 168 7.90 1313 7.91 

^ Salt Lake City Survey Report. 

^ Bureau of Educational ^Measurements and Standards, Emporia, Kansas. 

^ Indiana University Study, Vol. IV. M. E. Haggerty. 



EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION 93 

The Thorndike Scale Alpha is designed to measure a 
child's ability to understand the meaning of sentences, 
and is determined by the accuracy with which specific 
questions are answered after the reading of an assigned 
paragraph. A complete description of the test appears 
in Teachers' College Record, November, 1915, and January, 
1916. 

The median scores for the pupils in eighteen cities in 
Indiana are reported by Professor M. E. Haggerty, 
Indiana University. 



Median Scores 


IN Understanding of Sentences by 
Thorndike Scale Alpha ^ 


the 


Grades 


III IV V VI 


VII 


VIII 


Median 

Number of pupils .... 


. 5.48 6.56 7.56 8.46 
. 1650 2905 2028 1860 


8.72 
1625 


9 

1313 



^ Educational Tests and Measurements, Walter S. Monroe, Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 



CHAPTER VIII 
COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 

The content of the curriculum, unlike many of the 
other efficiency factors of the school system, is to a large 
extent dependent on individual judgment and opinion. 
It is true that certain fundamental principles may be 
formulated which meet with general acceptance in the 
educational world, but if these principles are challenged 
by critics no conclusive evidence can be produced in their 
defense. 

Even when it is possible to justify beyond question the 
curriculum used for one community at one time, there 
is no assurance that a similar course of study would meet 
the needs of another community; or even of the same 
community at another stage in its development. Social 
demands and conditions are in a constant state of change, 
and the curriculum must change accordingly. What 
then are the principles by which the superintendent may 
check his own course of study to determine if it reaches 
the standard generally accepted in the best schools? 

I. The fundamental aims and purposes must be so 
clear that every teacher is working definitely to realize 
them. 

II. The course of study must contain all of the ele- 
ments necessary to produce the desired results. 

III. Adequate provision must be made for systematic 
training of all types of children. This includes the hand- 
minded as well as the book-minded, subnormal as well as 

94 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 95 

precocious, and those who are handicapped by physical 
defects. 

IV. The child and not the subject matter must be the 
center of attention. This involves — (a) A study of the 
pupils, to determine the exact type of instruction suited 
to their individual needs and capacities. (6) A study of 
the community, to learn its needs in order to present to 
the child the fullest opportunity of preparing himself to 
gain a livelihood and to arouse him to a sense of his obliga- 
tion to his fellows as a social being. 

V. The course of study should furnish the tools of 
education; reading, writing, arithmetic, language, geog- 
raphy, and history including civics. There should be a 
clear recognition of the fact that the first four are tools 
only. This recognition causes the elimination of obsolete 
and useless subject matter. 

VI. The curriculum should be alive, bringing the pupil 
into contact with things of his daily experience, because 
such subject matter appeals to him directly as worth 
while. 

VII. Careful consideration should be given to the 
length of time the pupil will continue to attend school, 
and subjects should be so arranged that they provide 
those who leave at the close of the compulsory attend- 
ance period with a reasonable preparation for efficient 
citizenship. 

VIII. This organization of the curriculum will lead 
naturally from the general knowledge essential to all to 
the special knowledge required by the few. 

IX. The well-developed course of study involves atten- 
tion to reasonable correlations. The efficient teaching of 
history, for instance, necessitates the proper location of 



96 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

the region where the events occurred, and good Enghsh 
is an integral part of every recitation. 

X. Teachers should be left free to exercise their origi- 
nality and initiative so far as is consistent with the fun- 
damental purposes of the curriculum. 

XL An ideal curriculum is one which induces the habit 
of self-expression and self-criticism. It involves the 
weighing of relative values to determine those which are 
really worth while. 

XII. Knowledge of and ability to use the mother tongue 
should be one of the results derived from a well-balanced 
course of study. 

These general purposes of the curriculum cannot be 
appraised in the same definite manner as is possible in 
measuring the achievements of pupils; the extent to 
which they are realized must be determined largely by 
the exercise of good judgment on the part of the super- 
visory force. Nevertheless, the amount of time assigned 
to the different subjects will help to indicate to the teacher 
their relative value; consequently the experience of the 
best schools is suggestive in determining the time allow- 
ance for each subject if the desired ends are to be reached. 

Reading and Literature 

The Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society for 
the Study of Education gives the average time distribu- 
tion by subjects and grades in fifty representative cities. 

The wise use of the time assigned to reading involves a 
recognition of the chief aim of school reading, which is — 
to put the child in possession of the essential tools of an 
education. It includes the commonly accepted purposes 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 97 

of thought-getting, expressive oral reading, enlargement 
of vocabulary, word study, understanding of expressions 
and allusions, acquaintance with leading authors, etc. 
The general school tendency is to place undue emphasis 
upon the manner of reading, to the neglect of what the child 
reads. Books that are valuable for general educational 
purposes may also develop power in the mechanics of read- 
ing and have the added advantage of enlisting the interest 

Time Given to Reading and Literature in Fifty Cities 

(^^^ j„ Hours per "^ Per Cent of 

'^^^^^ Year Grade Time 

1 266 31 

II 235 26 

III 188 21 

IV 153 16 

V 126 13 

VI 117 12 

VII 98 10 

VIII 97 10 

of the child, leading him to read for recreation and for the 
culture that comes from familiarity with newspapers, books, 
and magazines. Oral reading is becoming of steadily di- 
minishing importance to adults: rapid and silent reading 
for content has taken its place. The school must change 
its practice to conform to this demand, giving the child 
abundant practice in reading for thought, and for the sake 
of developing the power of comprehension which he will 
later need. This may be provided by a liberal use of 
supplementary readers. No single type of book should 
be allowed to monopolize the program: the greater the 
variety the wider will be the social horizon. Literature, 
history, travel, biography, science, and social relations 



98 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

make up the range of adult interests, and the formation 
of the habit of reading along all these lines is important 
to children. To meet the need fifteen or twenty sets of 
supplementary readers should be available for every 
grade. Only by adequate provision for practice can the 
necessary skill in rapid reading be developed. 



Spelling 

In this subject the aim is not to teach the child the 
correct spelling of a large number of words, but rather to 
make him absolute master of those that he will actually 
use. Ability to spell unusual words while failing on 
those of every-day intercourse is misdirected effort, and 
is responsible to a large degree for the criticism directed 
against the public school by business men whose patience 
is often sorely tried by the spelling deficiencies of its 
graduates. Children and adults alike need to spell the 
words they write and only these. Extensive tests have 
established the truth that the list of such words is com- 
paratively small and that the time at the disposal of the 
teacher is sufficient for their mastery. The child or the 
adult who has acquired the habit of watchfulness over 
his spelling, consulting the dictionary when in doubt, 
necessarily becomes a good speller; the real difficulty 
comes from failure to perceive that the word is mis- 
spelled. The person who knows that he knows, or 
knows that he does not know, is sure of the ultimate 
mastery of the spelling intricacies of the English language. 
The investigations made by Dr. J. M. Rice show that 
an excessive increase in the amount of time allotted to 
spelKng tends to defeat the desired end. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 99 



Spelling Time Allowance in Fifty Cities ^ 

^ J Hours per Per Cent of 

G^a^^ Year Time 

1 54 6.3 

II..... 66 7.3 

III... 73 8 

IV 67 6.9 

V 61 6.3 

VI 58 5.9 

VII 52 5.3 

VIII 51 5.1 



Spelling practice should continue until it has developed 
absolute accuracy. In some instances this will mean 
its persistence even through the high school course. If 
teachers consistently refuse to accept written work 
containing misspelled words, students will be forced to 
develop the habit of watchfulness. Those who do not 
need the drill should be excused from spelling exercises, 
thus avoiding the waste of time involved by imposing the 
burden upon all because of the failure of a few. 

Handwriting 

Methods of instruction and the insistent demand that 
a certain fixed standard of attainment be reached are the 
essential factors to be considered in this subject. 

Many supervisors of penmanship question whether 
formal lessons in grade one develop skill in writing, 
although the value to the teacher as a form of busy-work 
is a different matter. 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



100 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
Time Allowance Handwriting in Fifty Cities^ 

^ 1 Hours per Per Cent of 

^^^^^ Year Grade Time 

1 50 6.7 

II 60 . 6.7 

III 52 5.7 

IV 53 5.5 

V 50 5.1 

VI 47 4.8 

VII 39 3.9 

VIII 37 3.7 

Language, Composition, and Grammar 

No subject in the curriculum is of more practical 
importance to the pupil than mastery of his mother 
tongue. Facility in expression is rather a matter of 
practice than of memorizing rules, consequently technical 
grammar as such should receive little attention in the 
lower grades. Conscious and unconscious imitation of 
good forms should be the chief reliance of the school in 
developing power to use English accurately and effectively. 

Time Allowance for English in Fifty Cities ^ 

p. J Hours per Per Cent of 

^^^^^ Year Total Time 

1 75 8.6 

II 79 8.7 

III 94 10.3 

IV 106 10.9 

V 116 12 

VI 118 12.2 

VII 134 13.7 

VIII 142 14.1 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE loi 

Oral and written expression, with constant watchfulness 
on the part of pupils against their habitual errors, must 
be the basis of the work. Isolation of the composition 
exercise is a wasteful method of procedure. The more 
closely it can be correlated with other lessons the better 
the results. 

Mathematics 

That all pupils should be trained until they possess 
reasonable skill and accuracy in the fundamental opera- 
tions of arithmetic is granted by everyone, but beyond 
this point there are radical differences of opinion. There 
is a growing tendency to hold the subject in less esteem 

Time Allowance for Arithmetic in Fifty Cities^ 



p, j^ Hours per Per Cent of 

^^^^^ Year Total Time 

1 60 6.9 

II V. 96 10.7 

III 131 14.4 

IV 149 15.4 

V 144 14.9 

VI 146 15 

VII 140 14.4 

VIII 142 14.1 

than formerly. Puzzle problems are no longer included 
in our best textbooks. We need not so much the skill to 
solve problems of this character as the ability to think 
in numbers. Expertness in the manipulation of figures 
and power to apply them to the solution of problems 
within the experience of the pupil should be the aim of 
the school. This requires enough drill to give freedom 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



I02 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

from effort, so that, figure manipulation being relegated 
by habit to the lower brain centers, the child can use 
the higher centers for the application of the figures to the 
solution of the problem. 

History 
Time Allowance in History in Fifty Cities ^ 

p, , Hours per Per Cent of 

^■■^^^ Year Total Time 

1 27 3.1 

II 31 3.4 

III 35 3.8 

IV 57 5.8 

V 67 6.9 

VI 71 7.3 

VII 91 9.2 

VIII 117 11.6 

Knowledge of history is essential to an understanding 
of the complicated social problems of a democracy, the 
method of solving them being developed only from a 
study of the past. To memorize facts furnishes no help 
toward their understanding, although facts are an essen- 
tial basis for deductions. In the lower grades biog- 
raphies of men who participated in the great events of 
history will furnish the necessary background for a later 
study of the events, which should be treated topically, 
with an abundance of reading to show the relation between 
present and earlier conditions. H the subject is presented 
as a series of problems for pupils to solve, the necessary 
application of information obtained from required reading 
will change history from a memory subject to a means 
of social analysis. 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 103 

The problem method of attack may also be applied to 
a study of civic questions, viz., community health and 
sanitation, city water supply, garbage disposal, street 
cleaning, the work of city officials, and kindred topics. 

Geography 
Time Allowance for Geography in Fifty Cities* 

^ , Hours per Per Cent of 

^'■^^^ Year Total Time 

1 16 1.8 

II 7 .8 

III 50 5.4 

IV 83 8.5 

V 102 11.2 

VI 107 11 

VII 98 9.9 

VIII 76 7.5 

Geography, in the best school systems, is no longer 
taught for the sake of enabling a pupil to locate natural 
and political divisions, which mean little or nothing to 
him and are soon forgotten. Like history, it must be 
humanized and socialized if it is to justify the time given 
to it. Industries, commerce, agriculture, and modes of 
living are the centers around which the work is grouped. 
Children are trained to take an attitude of intelligent 
interest in the world about them and in the relations 
between their own country and other peoples of the 
world. Cause and effect play an important part in this 
study. Geographical readings, maps, globes, pictures, 
diagrams, museum materials, etc., are the means employed 
in making the relationship real. 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



I04 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Drawing and Applied Art 

Drawing is an effective medium for conveying ideas, 
in some instances an even more effective mode of expres- 
sion than oral or written speech. The administration of 
the course calls for an understanding of the principles 

Time Allowance in Drawing and Applied Art in Fifty Cities ^ 

r-r^A^ Hours per Per Cent of 

'-"^^^^ Year Total Time 

1 98 11.3 

II 54 6 

III 56 6.2 

IV 53 5.5 

V 50 5.2 

VI 50 5.1 

VII 50 5 

VIII 40 4.9 

of graphic art through their application to constructive 
activities, and mere copying from books or from board 
drawings made by teachers will not accomplish this 
purpose; but close cooperation between drawing and 
manual training teachers provides for this vital applica- 
tion of drawing theory to concrete situations. 

Industrial Arts 

No argument is needed to justify teaching domestic 
science to girls, since the majority of them are sure to 
use their school training in homes of their own. Granted 
that this is the reason for teaching the subject, it follows 
that the work should be of as practical a nature as possible. 
Every opportunity should be sought to make the school 

1 Fourteenth Year Book. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 105 

kitchen function in useful projects. Preparing and 
serving meals to groups of officials, cooking food to be 
used in the lunch room, and filling orders from school 
patrons are some of the ways open to the domestic science 
teacher for disposing of the products. Fractional cooking 
should be avoided so far as possible, because of its fail- 
ure to reproduce home conditions. The only limitation 
upon cooking in family quantities is that imposed by the 
market for the food cooked. 

Time Allowance for Manual Training and Domestic 
Science in Fifty Cities ^ 

P_„^„ Hours per Per Cent of 

^•^^^^ Year Total Time 

1 42 4.8 

II 47 5.1 

III 40 4.5 

IV 45 4.6 

v.... 50 5.2 

VI 57 5.8 

VII 72 7.1 

VIII .74 7.4 

Manual training for boys raises a problem difficult of 
solution, but not insuperable. The essential motivation 
may be found in the construction of school equipment 
or of pieces of furniture or other articles desired by the 
boy. In the latter event, it is probably necessary to 
require him to pay for the materials used. The course 
should provide for a variety of activities, such as cabinet 
making, metal work, printing, etc., in order to furnish 
an opportunity for revealing the special aptitudes of the 
pupils. This is vocational guidance of the very best 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



io6 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

character, although such work is in no sense vocational 
training but rather of the nature of directed play. The 
work should be kept normal by imposing on the pupil a 
certain amount of responsibility for the quality of the 
product and the element of time cost. Considerable 
industrial and scientific information may be imparted 
by the selection of projects involving the construction 
of water wheels, derricks, steam engines, electric motors, 
etc. Such work proves of absorbing interest to boys 
and may be encouraged by opening the school shops for 
voluntary attendance on certain afternoons. 

Physical Education 

In the majority of schools the tendency to separate 
the work in hygiene and physical education is of mani- 
fest disadvantage to both subjects. When the lessons 
in physiology are carried over into the department of 
physical education, the application of the teaching is at 
once evident to the pupil. The theoretical instruction 
given by the teacher can be supplemented to advantage 
by practical talks from medical inspectors and nurses on 
health topics. These come with the added weight of 
professional opinion and inspire the pupils with ideals of 
right living. 

The time devoted to physical training is all too inade- 
quate. A week consists of 168 hours; if twelve hours a 
day are given up to sleep, meals, etc., 84 hours remain, 
which in a state of nature were employed in physical 
exercise. The school now monopolizes about 25 hours 
for mental exertion, but the physical nature of the child 
remains the same: he still requires for normal develop- 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 107 

ment an abundance of free play. Formal gymnastics will 
not take its place, and this fact is obtaining recognition 
in the schools. Play grounds are being established for 
the enjoyment of games, folk dancing, and athletics under 

Time Allowance for Physiology and Hygiene in Fifty Cities ^ 



Grade 


Hours 

Year 


per 


Per Cent of 
Total Time 


I 


37 




4.3 


II 


41 




4.5 


Ill 


40 




4.4 


IV 


37 




3.8 


V 


34 




3.5 


VI 


40 




4.2 


VII 


45 




4.5 


VIII 


57 




5.7 


Time Allowance for Physical 


Training 


IN Fifty Cities ^ 


Grade 


Hours per 
Year 


Per Cent of 
Total Time 



1 46 5.4 

II 41 4.5 

III 40 4.5 

IV 40 4.2 

V 38 4 

VI 40 4.2 

VII 38 3.7 

VIII 39 4 

competent directors. Two hours daily would seem none 
too much for such training, but this time cannot be 
given within the limits of a five or six-hour session, so 
the only apparent remedy is the lengthening of the school 
day and the devotion of the added time to the develop- 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



io8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

ment of the physical well-being of the children. No 
excellence of academic training can compensate for the 
loss of health, and no nation can afford to follow a policy 
which results in undermining the vitality of its future 
citizens. 

Music 

It is a generally accepted principle that one of the 
duties of the school is to train prospective citizens to 
an intelligent use of leisure. On this theory music has 
become an integral part of the curriculum, but it has 

Time Allowance for Music in Fifty Cities ^ 



Grade 


Hours per 
Year 


Per Cent of 
Total Time 


I 


45 


5.2 


II 


48 


5.3 


Ill 


....• 47 


5.1 


IV 


48 


4.9 


V 


45 


4.7 


VI 


45 


4.6 


VII 


45 


4.4 


VIII 


44 


4.4 



not realized its purpose. The school has attempted to 
teach the child to read music at sight, has failed, and in 
the process has killed the really vital element — love of 
music. Mr. Thomas W. Surrette, of the advisory com- 
mittee for the Boston public schools, suggests as an 
alternative that children be taught a large number of 
simple folk songs and that the emphasis be laid upon 
developing appreciation and love of music rather than 
upon an attempt to acquire a technical knowledge of the 
subject which is of little future value. 

^ Fourteenth Year Book. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND TIME SCHEDULE 109 

One of the significant figures in a discussion of time 
distribution is the number of hours devoted to a subject 
in all grades. The following table gives the number of 
cities allotting time to each subject, the average total, 
the lowest total in any city, the highest, the average 
deviation, and the average percentage of time. 



Totals for Fifty Cities ^ 



Open- Read- 
ing ing 



Lan- Spell- Penman- Arith- Geogra- His- 
guage ing ship metic phy tory 



Sci- 
ence 



No. of cities 




















allotting time 


45 


50 


50 


50 


49 


50 


50 


50 


47 


Average total time 


269 


1311 


849 


454 


362 


981 


474 


360 


279 


Lowest total time 


116 


675 


119 


216 


244 


456 


202 


140 


54 


Highest total time 


487 


2900 


1267 


774 


533 


1380 


750 


700 


593 


Average devia- 




















tion (hours) 


71 


309 


163 


115 


62 


175 


103 


75 


106 


Percentage of 




















average total 





















recitation time ^ 



26.3 13.8 7.4 5.9 15.9 7.7 5.8 4.5 



Draw- 
ing 



Music 



Man. 
Tr. 



Phy. 
Tr. 



Recess 



Misc. 



No. of cities allotting time 
Average total time 
Lowest total time 
Highest total time 
Average deviation (hours) 
Percentage of average 

total recitation time ^ 6.7 



48 


49 


46 


46 


40 


28 


410 


366 


316 


343 


565 


397 


242 


135 


76 


40 


240 


39 


760 


600 


965 


918 


933 


2018 


72 


58 


132 


120 


133 


237 



5.9 



5.1 — — 



The policy of the fifty cities given in the Fourteenth 
Year Book may be verified by reference to the time 
schedule for the elementary school as published by the 
State Department of Education in Massachusetts. This 

1 Fourteenth Year Book. 

2 Reckoned on the sum of the averages for the indicated subjects. 



no METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 





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112 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

was prepared by a committee working under the direction 
of Francis G. Wadsworth, Agent, and was reviewed by a 
number of prominent superintendents and normal school 
principals in the state. It represents the consensus of 
opinion as to the proper time value to assign to each 
subject. 

In addition to the time indicated on the schedule, the 
New Jersey State program suggests a specified amount of 
home study. 

Home Study per Week 

Grades VII and VIII 

Reading and Spelling 2\ hours 

Geography 1 hour 

History and Civics H hours 

Total 5 " . 

Grade VI 

Geography \\ hours 

History and Civics 1 " 

Spelling U " 

Total 4 " 

Grades IV and V 

Spelling 1| hours 

This imposes no unreasonable burden upon children 
and tends to develop habits of systematic self-directed 
study. It has the advantage of promoting home interest 
in a child's school work and keeps his parents informed 
of his progress. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY CENTER 

No school system realizes to the full its capacity for 
community service so long as its activities are restricted 
to the education of children for five or six hours a day, 
and the amount of money invested in the plant makes 
such a limited use uneconomical in every sense of the 
term. 

The most natural step in the direction of a wider use- 
fulness is to open the buildings for evening classes and 
social center purposes. Extensive as the development of 
evening school activities has been during the present 
decade, the possibilities are scarcely beginning to be 
realized. Increasing numbers of young men and women 
who, because of the necessity of earning their own living 
or of contributing to the support of their families, have 
been deprived of the opportunities offered during the 
day, are eager to give their evenings to gaining additional 
power in purely academic subjects as a prerequisite for 
admission to a desired industry; but even greater than 
their industrial value is the socializing power of the 
classes. Their complete change of atmosphere brings 
refreshment to the tired laundress or the lonely household 
drudge; to every mechanic the classroom becomes a 
social meeting place where he may mingle with his 
fellows; and young men or girls working away from 
home in business houses find congenial friends among 
their classmates. 

113 



114 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Evening elementary schools serve three distinct pur- 
poses : 

1. Teaching pupils whose attendance is required by law. 
(Some states allow children between fourteen and sixteen 
years of age to secure employment during the day pro- 
vided they attend classes a prescribed number of evenings.) 

2. Training in common branches for English-speaking 
adolescents and adults. 

3. Teaching English to foreigners and employing the 
lessons as a medium for presenting American ideas with 
specific instruction concerning the privileges and obliga- 
tions of citizenship in a republic. It is the evening 
elementary school which must, to a large degree, solve 
the problem of assimilating the constant stream of for- 
eigners who come to us in total ignorance of our customs 
and ideals. 

Many cities are already keenly alive to the importance 
of utilizing their educational machinery for the benefit 
of young men and women who desire to supplement 
their fragmentary training. Boston, Massachusetts, has 
even gone to the length of creating a department solely 
for the purpose of administering such activities, and the 
significance of the work is indicated by the following 
table : 

Boston Evening Schools 

High Schools Elementary Schools 

Number of centers 9 21 

Average number of teachers 160 379 

Total enroUment 5,989 12,182 

Average number of pupils per teacher .... 26 .17 

Nights open 65 88 

Total attendance 218,113 518,287 

Per capita cost per night in teachers' salaries .186 .134 



SCHOOL AS SOCIAL COMMUNITY CENTER 115 

In strong contrast to this far-sighted policy is the 
false economy which influences some communities to 
weigh against the benefit to their future citizenship the 
immediate money cost of conducting evening classes. To 
such narrow-minded doubters there is only one answer: 
that in comparison with the direct and indirect gain to 
those in attendance and to the community of which they 
form a part, it would be difficult to suggest any better 
investment of school funds than in placing educational 
opportunities before those who voluntarily seek to profit 
by them. 



Comparative Cost of Evening Elementary Schools 



City 


Average 
Attendance 


Teachers per 

Capita Including 

Supervision 


Pupil Cost 

per Hour 

Total Expense 


Boston, Mass. . , . 


. 6494 


$11.38 


.084 


Springfield, Mass. 


. 806 


8.96 


. . . 


Newark, N.J 


. 3756 


13.93 


.115 


St. Louis, Mo... . 


. 3552 


10.85 


.099 


Rochester, N.Y. . 


. 3207 


10.85 




Montclair, N.J. . . 


. 253 


11.40 


.076 



Comparative Cost of Evening High Schools 

Average Teachers per Pupil Cost 

City Attendance Capita Including per Hour 

Supervision Total Expense 

Boston, Mass 3323 $12.43 .12 

Springfield, Mass. . 804 12.63 

Newark, N.J 2436 23.44 .16 

St. Louis, Mo 4743 15.27 .119 

Rochester, N.Y. . . 2044 7.29 

Montclair, N.J. .. . 212 14.09 .094 

Dr. C. A. Perry, in Wider Use of the School Plant, gives 
the pupil cost per evening for high and elementary schools 
together as .152 in Chicago and .141 in Providence, R.I. 



ii6 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

A discouraging feature of evening school work is the 
irregular attendance of the students and the heavy 
mortality usually occurring, but when it is remembered 
that those who enroll come wearied from the work of 
the day and with little energy left for study, such a 
condition is not surprising. To attend week after week 
in the face of such a handicap requires somewhat re- 
markable perseverance. Then, too, the school must 
compete with the lure of popular amusements, such as 
the moving picture theater, which offers in place of 
continued effort welcome relaxation to the exhausted 
mind and body. 

Evening School Enrollment and Attendance^ 

Per Cent 
Attendance 
City Enrollment Attendance Sessions per Evening 

Hartford, Conn 2522 

New Haven, Conn 1066 

New Britain, Conn 944 

Waterbury, Conn 803 

Meriden, Conn 366 

Danbury, Conn 282 

Ansonia, Conn 149 

Montclair, N.J 707 

La Crosse, Wis 963 

The term ''wider use of schools" is not susceptible of 
exact definition, since customs vary greatly in different 
cities, but the extent to which Cleveland, Ohio, employs 
its facilities for the uplift of the city is typical of the 
general trend of public sentiment. 

^ Help Your School Survey. Bureau of Municipal Research, N.Y. 



646 


75 


26 


315 


75 


29 


303 


75 


32 


518 


86 


64 


188 


75 


51 


83 


75 


29 


39 


50 


26 


465 


75 


76 


385 


75 


39 



SCHOOL AS SOCIAL COMMUNITY CENTER 117 



Cleveland Use of School Buildings One Year 



Number of 


Times Used Total Attendance 


Organizations 




Auditoriums 292 


719 173,247 


Gymnasiums 197 


1975 96,633 


Groups Using 


Schools 


Twelfth Ward Improvement Association 


Civic League 


East End Chamber of Commerce 


Western Reserve Dental Club 


East End Neighborhood Club 


Thespian Dramatic Club 


Women's Suffrage Pohtical League 


South End Choral Society 


Municipal School League 


Mendelssohn Choir 


Spanish War Veterans 


Boys' Glee Club 


Ladies' Rehef Corps 


Boy Scouts 


Knights of Pythias Lodge 


Boy Cadets 


PubHc School Association 


Camp Fire Girls 


D. A. R. Clubs 


Y. W. C. A. 


G. A. R. Post 


Mothers' Club 


Garment Workers Union 


Anti-Fly Campaign 


Warner Civic Association 


Boys' Chef Club 


Normal Alumni 


Patrons' Club 


Alumni Club 


Social Club 


Sanitation Club 


German Club 


Social Center Club 


Latin Club 


Teachers' and Mothers' Club 


Sjnian Club 



This is reported to be but a partial list of the groups 
using the school buildings of Cleveland, but it is thor- 
oughly representative and shows concretely the wide 
range of activities receiving this measure of cooperation 
from the educational department. The groups paid 
custodian's fees varying from 30 cents to $5.00 an evening, 
according to the size of the quarters used. Such a small 
fee cannot be considered a rental, since it is undoubtedly 
less than the actual cost of opening the building. As a 
general proposition the policy of making a charge to 



ii8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

cover the actual cost of janitor service, heat, and hght, is 
sound in principle since, if this is not done, the expendi- 
ture must be met from funds provided for other purposes. 
In addition, it would seem a wise educational measure 
to make such social activities self-supporting in order to 
develop a feeling of self-reliance and self-respect. It is 
quite as possible to pauperize a group as an individual, 
and when the clubs using the buildings are required to 
pay a small fee for their enjoyment, a sense of responsi- 
bility is developed impossible to secure through a mere 
gift of the privilege. A policy similar to that of Cleveland 
is followed in Boston. Under a general director and four 
assistants are the seven districts of the city, each in 
charge of a local man, selected because of his knowledge 
of the situation. The department stands consistently 
for entertainments of educational significance and value. 
Programs consisting of good music, illustrated lectures, 
dramatics, and masterpieces in moving pictures are 
offered. Emphasis is placed upon building up an adult 
membership in all centers. In 1916, 3400 persons over 
sixteen years of age were enrolled. The state law of 
Massachusetts does not permit the city Board of Educa- 
tion to charge an admission fee for the use of halls or 
buildings, so expense must be met by voluntary contribu- 
tions, and tickets are issued to identify subscribers. 
The state legislation was designed to prevent any Board 
from making a profit from the rental of school buildings, 
but Boston finds it a serious handicap in placing clubs 
upon a self-supporting basis, although fifteen have at- 
tained that status in spite of the difhculty. 

The total attendance in the seven centers for the year 
1916 was as follows: 



SCHOOL AS SOCIAL COMMUNITY CENTER 119 

Total Attendance 

Clubs and entertainments 98,530 

English lectures 44,134 

Non-English lectures 16,209 

122 Home and School Associations 36,388 

21 Alumni meetings 3,962 

26 Citizen's meetings 4,744 

56 Other meetings 6,560 

Total 210,527 

The work in Montclair, N.J., is in harmony with the 
tendency toward a wider use of the schools, and represents 
typical activities for the smaller community. Their 
varied character is shown by the following list: 

Evening Schools 

Summer Schools 

Playgrounds 

Lectures 

Concerts 

Social Worker in Foreign Section 

In addition to these enterprises the educational author- 
ities cooperate to the fullest degree with all reputable 
organizations desiring the use of rooms in any building. 
The school department recognizes the right of citizens 
to use the facilities which they themselves have provided 
and only a nominal charge is made to cover the cost of 
janitor service, heat, and light. The following principles 
govern the action of the department: 

1. For meetings in which the school is immediately 
interested and is the directive agency, no charge. 

2. For meetings held for educational purposes by 
outside organizations with no admission fee, no charge 
save for janitor service. 

3. For meetings held for charitable purposes with 



I20 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

admission fee, a minimum charge, varying according to 
the size of the hall and cost of opening. 

4. For meetings held by outside organizations with 
admission fee for money-making purposes, a maximum 
charge, depending upon the size of hall and cost of opening. 

A very liberal policy is followed in the application of 
these principles. A small hall in the administrative 
building, seating about 75, was used 28 times in a single 
month by different groups, and no charge was made 
for the daytime meetings, since they involved no extra 
expense. The evening charge was $1.50, to pay for the 
services of the janitor. The following are typical groups 
using the hall: 

Men's Glee Club 

Dramatic Society 

Alliance Frangaise 

Home Makers' Association 

Mothers' Club 

Women's Club 

Department of Education of Women's Club 

In the evening school the department agrees to provide 
a classroom and an instructor for any subject requested 
by a group of fifteen students. This policy results in 
classes in stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, Spanish, 
French, Latin, Algebra, woodworking, basketry, sewing, 
cooking, and the common branches. 

The evening school report for 1915-1916 gives the 
following statistics: 

Number Total Average Average Per Cent 

Sessions Enrollment Enrollment Attendance Attendance 

78 707 558 465 76 

Total cost $6243.00 

Per capita on enrollment 8.83 

Per capita on attendance 13.43 



SCHOOL AS SOCIAL COMMUNITY CENTER i2r 

The summer school and playgrounds are carried on 
as a single enterprise, and the scope of the work is shown 
by the following statistics: 







Academic Work 




Number 
Sessions 


Total 
Enrollment 


Average Average 
Enrollment Attendance 


Per Cent 
Attendance 


30 


385 


286 260 


91 



Total cost $1047.00 

Per capita on enrollment 2.72 

Per capita on attendance 4.03 

Five centers were opened in 1915 for play activities, 
and the work was carried on during July and August. 
The average attendance for the two months for the five 
centers was 1350, and the total cost, $2080, or a cost per 
child of $1.54 for the season. 

The lectures and concerts are provided by the joint 
efforts of the Board of Education, Federated Women's 
Clubs, and two or three local organizations. The plan 
is to furnish the community with free lectures and enter- 
tainments of a high order of merit. Five centers are 
opened during the winter, and the scope of the work is 
indicated by the following table: 







Number Lectures 




Center 


Number Concerts 


and Entertainments 


Total Attendance 


High School 


.. 12 




12,000 


Hillside 




13 


5,850 


Chestnut St. 


.. 12 


14 


6,000 


Grove St. . . . 


.. 5 


5 


3,000 


Baldwin St. . 


.. 6 


29 


12,250 


Total 


. . . . 




39,100 



122 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The total expenditure made by the Board of Education 
was but $375. Approximately an equal amount came 
from all the other agencies together. In many instances 
those who made up the program gave their services. 
This is particularly true of the concerts, at which artists 
made, through their talent, their contribution to the 
socialized activities of the town. 

The idea of a social worker in the foreign section of 
the town originated with the Central Council of Women's 
Clubs, and the expense was met by voluntary contribu- 
tions for the first year. By that time the value of the 
work had been so fully demonstrated that it was taken 
over by the School Department and incorporated into 
the regular activities of the school. The importance of 
this department and the character of the work appear in 
the tabular report of the year. 

Neighborhood calls 1034 

Business calls 160 

Organization meetings 26 

Addresses before Local Organizations 46 

Classes in Mothercraf t 28 

Classes in Home Economics 28 

Classes in Dramatics 40 

Moving Picture Entertainments 12 

Dramatic Performances 8 

Musicales 24 

Lectures in Italian 4 

Cases of Cruelty Investigated 26 

Underfed children cared for 160 

Children sent to Fresh Air Home 12 

In addition to these activities, the social worker per- 
formed an invaluable service in bringing the home and 
the school into closer relations. By her efforts, also, in 
enlisting the cooperation of residents from other sections 



SCHOOL AS SOCIAL COMMUNITY CENTER 123 

of the town, those who needed help and those who could 
give it were brought into friendly contact, the evils of 
class prejudice were minimized, and personal relations 
were established through mutual interests. 

Any discussion of the social activities of the schools 
necessarily deals with the question in a somewhat indef- 
inite fashion. It is impossible to set up standards of 
attainment and costs for the guidance of unlike com- 
munities purposing to carry on similar work. One can 
only indicate its scope by presenting the experience of 
the three types of school systems used as illustrations in 
this chapter, with the hope that it may prove suggestive 
to those who are interested in solving one of the serious 
problems of the present decade, how to transform the 
potential usefulness of the idle school plant into actual 
ministration to those who are barred from its normal 
activities. 



CHAPTER X 
SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

Dr. Leonard Ayres gives as the five watchwords in 
the building program for any city: Education, Economy, 
Safety, Health, and Happiness. The past decade has 
witnessed such improvement in the type of school build- 
ings that those of the more progressive cities make it 
difficult to conceive any further architectural progress 
possible. Minor internal modifications may still be 
made, but the general ideal has become so widely accepted 
that any well-informed superintendent has little difficulty 
in securing the approval of his community for a modern 
type of school in agreement with the formula of Dr. 
Ayres. g 

This chapter will present in tabular form the standards 
evolved by experts in schoolhouse construction. The 
superintendent who attempts to build according to 
precedent will merely perpetuate past errors: his only 
safe plan is to conform to the accepted practice as estab- 
blished by those who have brought highly trained abilities 
to the task of designing the best possible model for its 
purpose. 

For one who wishes to determine in how far the already 
existing buildings of his school plant meet the modern 
standard, there is no better guide than the Score Card 
for School Buildings and Equipment, formulated by Dr. 
George D. Strayer, of Teachers College, New York City. 
The weighted credits assigned to each item provide an 

124 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 125 

opportunity of showing in what particulars any building 
is defective and an approximate estimate of the extent 
of such deficiency. Since these credits represent the 
median judgment derived from the scores allowed by a 
large group competent to judge the worth of the several 
elements, it follows that they are more reliable than the 
single judgment of any individual. 

SCORE CARD FOR CITY SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
By George Drayton Strayer 

Teachers College, New York City 

Instructions. — 1. Abbreviation: 5 — standard. 

2. Basis for scoring — 1000 points. 

3. In scoring classrooms, stairways, entrances, fire escapes, and the like, 
score each separately and insert the average for the final score. 

4. It will be worth while to use this card in checking up blueprints of 
prospective buildings. To do this will require a complete set of specifications 
with the blueprints, also a copy of state laws and city ordinances. 

SHORT FORM OF SCORE CARD 

L Site (125) 

A. Location (55) 

1. Accessibihty (25) 2. Environment (30) 

B. Drainage (30) 

1. Elevation (20) 2. Nature of soil (10) 

C. Size and Form (40) 

II. Building (165) 

A. Location (25) 

1. Orientation (15) 2. Position on site (10) 

B. External Structure (60) 

1. Type (5) 2. Material (10) 3. Height (5) 4. Roof 

(5) 5. Entrances (10) 6. Aesthetic Balance (10) 
7. Condition (15) 

C. Internal Structure (80) 

1. Stairways (35) 2. Corridors (25) 3, Basement 

(15) 4. Attic (5) 



126 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

III. Service Systems (280) 

A. Heating and Ventilation System (70) 

1. ICind (20) 2. Installation (10) 3. Air Supply (25) 

4. Distribution (15) 

B. Fire Protection System (65) 

1. Apparatus (10) 2. Fireproofness (20) 3. Escapes 

(20) 4. Electric Wiring (5) 5. Fire Doors (10) 

C. Cleaning System (20) 

D. Artificial Lighting System (20) 

E. Electric Service Systems (15) 

1. Clock (5) 2. Bell (5) 3. Telephone (5) 

F. Water Supply System (30) 

G. Toilet System (50) 

1. Distribution (10) 2. Fixtures (10) 3. Adequacy 

(10) 4. Seclusion (5) 5. Sanitation (15) 

H. Mechanical Service Systems (10) 

1. Elevators (5) 2. Book-lifts (2) 3. Waste-chutes 
(3) 

IV. Classrooms (290) 

A. Location and Connections (35) 

B. Construction and Finish (90) 

1. Size (25) 2. Shape (15) 3. Floors (10) 4. Walls 

(10) 5. Doors (5) 6. Closets (5) 7. Blackboards 
(10) 8. Color-scheme (10) 

C. Illumination (85) 

1. Glass area (45) 2. Windows (30) 3. Shades (10) 

D. Cloakrooms and Wardrobes (25) 

E. Equipment (55) 

1. Seats and Desks (40) 2. Teacher's Desk (10) 

3. Bulletin Boards (5) 

V. Special Rooms (140) 

A. Large Rooms for General Use (65) 

1. Playroom (10) 2. Auditorium (15) 3. Study Hall 

(5) 4. Library (10) 5. Gymnasium (15) 6. Lunch 
Room (10) 

B. Rooms for School Officials (35) 

1. Offices (10) 2. Teachers' Room (10) 3. Nurses' 
Room (10) 4. Janitor's Room (5) 

C. Other Special-Service Rooms (40) 

1. Laboratories (20) 2. Lecture Rooms (10) 3. Store 
Rooms (5) 4. Studios (5) 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 127 

DETAILED SCORE CARD FOR CITY SCHOOL 
BUILDINGS 
I. Site 

A . Location 

1. Accessibility — centrality (present and future), car lines, 

streets. 

2. Environment: 

a. Physical — gardens, trees, shrubbery, buildings, hills. 

(S — Skyline should not have an angle of more than 
30 degrees from base of building.) 

b. Social — density of settlement, composition, moral in- 

fluences. 

c. Protection — freedom from noise, dust, danger, malodors. 

B. Drainage 

1. Elevation, slope. (5 — Grounds should slope away from 

building and should not exceed 1 in. for every 3 ft.) 

2. Nature of soil — residual or artificial, kind, texture, aeration, 

hydration, surface material. 

C. Size and Form 

Should be large enough and of good shape to allow for proper 
placing of building, for 30 sq. ft. of playground per child, 
and for school garden. 
II. Building 

A . Location 

1. Orientation — light, exposure. (S — S.East, East, S.West, 

West, and South in order.) 

2. Position on site as regards appearance and economy of play- 

grounds. 

B. External Structure 

1. Type — rectangle, square, inner court, T, H, E, U. 

2. Material. (S — brick or stone.) 

3. Height — number of stories. {S — Two stories above base- 

ment.) 

4. Roof — type and material. {S — Flat, waterproof, suitable 

for playground, proper slope for drainage.) 

5. Entrances: 

a. Number, location, width. (5 — At least two near stair 

landings, 11-13 ft. wide.) 

b. Steps — number, protection from the elements. (S — As 

few as possible, unexposed.) 

c. Vestibules — size, lighting. (S — 11-13 ft. wide, double 

swing glass doors, and waterproof floors.) 



128 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

d. Doors — kind, opening, springs, checks, stops. {S — 
3i ft. X 8 ft., opening outward with panic bolts.) 

6. Aesthetic balance. {S — Simplicity and utility.) 

7. Condition. {S — Should be in good repair.) 
C. Internal Structure 

1. Stairways. 

a. Construction — kind (box, open, winding), material, tread 
and riser, nosing, width, landing, banister (number, 
kind, size, stabihty), soundproofness. {S — Tread, 
11-13 in.; riser, 7 in.; width, 5 ft.; metal banister, 
Ij in. dia., at least 2 for each stairway firmly attached.) 

h. Number and location — proximity to exits. {S — At least 
two, landings near exits.) 

c. Lighting — natural and artificial. {S — Should be well 

lighted.) 

d. Sanitation — coves, corners, ledges. {S — should have 

sanitary coves and be free from dust catchers.) 

2. Corridors. 
a. Location. 

h. Construction — material, width, door arrangement, finish 
(chair rail, picture mold, dado). {S — Width 11-13 ft.) 

c. Obstructions — lockers, cases, pedestals. {S — These 
should not obstruct easy passage.) 

3. Basement. 

a. Depth below grade, dampness, areas. (5 — Depth, 3 ft.; 

floor and walls waterproof.) 
h. Boiler-room, accessibility to fuel room, exits, ash-lifts. 
c. Fuel room, size, construction, chute. 

4. Attic, waterproof, heatproof, floor. 

III. Service Systems 

Note. — Defects in any service-system should be checked against the 
system, wherever found. 

A. Heating and Ventilating System 

1. Kind of system — direct, direct-indirect, gravity, plenum, 

plenum-exhaust. 

2. Installation — piping, workmanship, noise, control. {S — All 

piping should be insulated.) 

3. Air Supply — source, amount, humidification, duct. {S — 

From the top of the building; humidity 40-607o; 2000 cu. ft. 
per hour per pupil, should not enter with a velocity greater 
than 6 ft. per second.) 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 129 

4. Distribution — size, arrangement, kind of ducts, pipes and 
radiators. (S — Single ducts for each room; inlets 8-9 ft. 
above floor, outlets near floor.) 

B. Fire Protective System 

1. Apparatus — fire hose, extinguishers, water pressure, fire 

alarms. {S — Adequate supply on each floor; fire alarms 
easily accessible, automatic in boiler room, connected with 
city fire department.) 

2. Fireproof ness : 

a. Building as a whole — rating of underwriters. 

b. Stairways. (S — Encased fireproof stair-wells.) 

c. Boiler and fuel rooms. (S — Separate fireproof rooms.) 

3. Fire escapes — number, location, kind, protection, number of 

exits. (S — In non-fireproof buildings there should be at 
at least two fire escapes.) 

4. Electrical work — nature and place of intake, insulation, 

number and kind of outlets, location of switches, meter, 
cut-out, cabinets. (S — Should be installed according to 
rules of underwriters.) 

5. Fire doors — kind, location, operation. (5 — Automatically 

closing.) 

C. Cleaning System 

Kind, installation, efficiency. (S — Vacuum system.) 

D. Artificial Lighting System 

Kind, amount, distribution, number and location of switches, 
outlets for lanterns, etc. 

E. Electric Service Systems 

1. Clocks. 

2. Bells and gongs. 

3. Telephones — number and location. (S — At least one on 

each floor.) 

F. Water Supply System 

Drinking fountains, baths, lavatories, janitor's supply (on each 
floor). Installation and sanitation. 

G. Toilet System 

1. Distribution — location, accessibility. (5 — Most on first 

floor, others distributed.) 

2. Fixtures — (seats, urinals, washbowls, sinks, towel and paper 

holders), size, kind, durability, and arrangement. 

3. Adequacy — number. {S — 1 seat for each 15 girls, 1 seat 

for each 25 boys, 1 urinal stall per 10 boys.) 
3. Seclusion — soundproofness, doors. 



I30 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

5. Sanitation — finish, material, workmanship, lighting, venti- 
lating. (S — Material — not absorbent, non-corrosive.) 
H. Mechanical Service System 

1. Elevators (for buildings of more than four stories) — loca- 

tion, fireproofness, adequacy. 

2. Book-lifts. 

3. Waste chutes — kind, location, size. (5 — Fireproof, outlets 

closing, automatically.) 

IV. Classrooms 

A. Location and Connections (to exit, drinking fountains, toilet). 

Deduct for basement rooms and those above fourth floor with- 
out elevators. 

B. Construction and Finish 

1. Size. (5 — Per pupil 15 sq. ft. floor space and 200 cu. ft. air 

space.) 

2. Shape — classroom 24 x 30 x 12 ft. 

3. Floors — material, condition (cracks, checks, splinters, loose 

boards, projecting ends), width of boards, soundproofness, 
cove, baseboard, surface, finish. Stone, tile, cement, and 
other composition floors are bad for class or study rooms. 
{S — Should be battleship-linoleum, or hard wood, durable, 
well joined, and not dust-retaining.) 

4. Walls, Ceiling — plastering, finish, texture, condition, pic- 

ture mold, chair rail, kind and condition of dado. {S — 
Hard, smooth, non-glass plaster, with cement plaster for 
dado, avoiding grooves and ledges.) 

5. Doors — how opened, size, kind, lock, threshold, transom, 

number of exits. {S — Doors without thresholds and 
transoms.) 

6. Closets and Bookcases — location, size, convenience. 

7. Blackboards — kind, length, width, color, chalk rail, height 

from floor, surface, quaUty, condition, trim. {S — Slate, 
full black, on front and side of room, 36-42 in. wide, height 
of chalk rail, grades 1-2, 24 in.; 3^, 26 in.; 5-6, 28 in.; 
7-8, 30 in.; high school, 32-36 in.) 

8. Color scheme — woodwork, dado, walls, ceiling, furniture, 

shades, finish, fixtures. {S — Neutral color, buff or green; 
dado shghtly darker than walls, white or cream ceiling; 
woodwork, furniture and shades to harmonize in tone; dull, 
smooth finish.) 

C. Illumination 

1. Glass Area — \ to \ area of floor. 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 131 

2. Windows — size of mullions, nearness to ceiling, height of 

sill, kind of glass, distance of front window from front 
wall, orientation, shape. {S — From pupils' left, unilateral, 
grouped, symmetrical, as near ceiling as possible, 3^ to 
4 ft. from floor, plain glass, mullions not over 12 in. wide. 
Front windows should not come within 5 ft. of front wall; 
easterly exposure best; rectangular in shape.) 

3. Shades — kind, material, hanging, adjustment, condition. 
^ (S — Adjustable from center.) 

D. Cloakroom, Wardrobe 

Location, size, convenience, ventilation, finish. (S — Ample 
ventilation and accommodation.) 

E. Equipment 

1. Seats and desks — kind, number. {S — Adjustable-movable 

or adjustable; not over 42 in number.) 

2. Teacher's desk. {S — No platform.) 

3. Bulletin boards. 

V. Special Rooms 

A . Large Room for General Use 

1. Playroom — location, size, accessibiUty, adaptability, finish. 

{S — Per pupil 15 sq. ft. floor space and 200 cu. ft. of air 
space.) 

2. Auditorium. 

a. Location, accessibility. {S — Should be on first floor.) 

b. Construction — size, height, seating capacity, floor, acous- 

tics, exits, obstructions, gallery (kind, seating capacity, 
location), light and nature of stage, finish, ornamenta- 
tion. {S — for 80 ft. length on flat floor, stage should 
be 3 ft. 8 in. high; on dish floor, 3 ft.) 

c. Auxiliaries — dressing-rooms, curtain, setting, seats (kind, 

arrangement) . 

3. Study Hall — location, size, accessibility (especially to library), 

adaptabihty, finish. 

4. Library — location, size, accessibiUty, form and arrangement 

of stacks. 

5. Gymnasium: 

a. Location — accessibility, segregation of sexes. 

b. Construction — size, floor, track, gallery, soundproofness, 

finish. (S — Height 22-25 ft. Length and width should 
relate as 3 to 2.) 

c. Auxiliaries — lockers, showers, dressing-room (number, 

kind, location, convenience, condition). 



132 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

6. Lunch room — location, accessibility, size, adaptability, ar- 
rangement, finish, sanitation. 

B. Rooms for School Officials 

1. Offices — location, size, adaptability, finish; waiting room 

(ditto). 

2. Teachers' Room — location, size, toilet facilities, equipment, 

finish. {S — Equipped with chairs, couch, gas or electric 
plate.) 

3. Nurses' Room — location, size, equipment and toilet facilities 

(including bath), adaptability, sanitation, finish. 

4. Janitor's Room — location, size, convenience. 

C. Other Special-Service Rooms 

Note. — Include all facilities for chemistry, physics, biology, physi- 
ography, commercial work, household and industrial arts. 

1. Laboratories, 

a. Kind, location, size, adaptability. (S — Depends on num- 

ber of pupils to be accommodated. A room 30 x 40 ft. 
will accommodate 25 pupils.) 

b. Construction — plumbing, storerooms, cabinets, finish. 

2. Lecture Room — location, size, seating capacity, plumbing 

facilities, accessibiUty, fixed furniture (number, kind, 
arrangement). 

3. Supply and Store Rooms — location, size, adaptability. 

4. Studios — kind, location, size, adaptability. 

Note. — Include drawing, art, and music rooms. 

The total of credits attainable for a building which 
meets the standard determined by the median judgments 
of qualified experts is 1000. By comparison it becomes 
possible to state definitely the condition of any given 
building. To say in the general terms of the casual 
observer that it is good or fair, or that it ought to be 
condemned and torn down, makes no definite impression; 
but to declare, with figures to support the affirmation, 
that it is only half-way up to the standard carries un- 
avoidable conviction. 

Dr. Strayer's scale was employed in rating ten buildings 
in Montclair, N.J. The conditions made possible the 



Scorer 1 . . 


i( 


2. . 


(C 


3. . . 


(( 


4. .. 


(I 


5... 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 133 

widest variation in its application, since the five scorers, 
to whom it was absolutely new, were given no instructions 
as to its use; yet the reasonable uniformity in the results 
testifies to its worth. 

Results of Applying Building Scale 

Buildings I H HI IV V VI VII VHI DC x" 

924 816 575 798 705 823 876 590 665 840 

945 908 634 823 789 845 930 685 734 853 

966 951 681 815 705 883 960 615 617 906 

898 860 590 796 804 796 802 695 650 875 

960 930 515 860 750 860 895 670 690 850 

More uniformity would have been obtained if those 
to whom the task was entrusted, after scoring a trial 
building, had met to discuss results and thus corrected 
any personal tendency to lay undue emphasis on special 
features. 

Such a plan was followed in a recent survey at St. Paul, 
Minn., where twelve persons scored each building in the 
city. The result of the preliminary training appears in 
the uniformity of the values assigned by three judges 
to some of the essential factors in a single building. 

The significance of the figures lies not in the variation 
of the values attributed to any single feature, but in the 
fact that the total as found by each of the scorers differs 
from the median by a minimum of one per cent and 
a maximum of three per cent. Such variations are 
wholly negligible in reaching a decision relative to the 
character of the building, and their small degree proves 
that the use of the scale is practically independent of 
the personal equation. 

Of all problems connected with school administration 



134 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Comparative Judgment of Three Scorers 

Score No. 6 9 12 

Item I.... 85 71 83 

A 45 30 45 

B 20 26 23 

C 20 15 15 

Item II.... 94 113 91 

A 15 22 16 

B 44 36 26 

C 35 55 49 

Item III... 116 123 115 

' A 31 32 30 

B 8 9 

C 13 15 16 

D 

E 5 15 15 

F 15 2 5 

G 42 41 35 

H 10 10 5 

Item IV... 174 186 187 

A 35 25 25 

B 49 67 60 

C 47 50 56 

D 20 20 16 

E 23 24 30 

Item v.... Ill 78 75 

A 45 28 35 

B 28 13 10 

C 38 37 30 

Total.. 580 571 551 

that of building costs is the most difficult to standardize, 
and yet its standardization is a matter in which the 
superintendent is vitally interested. In different cities 
buildings of approximately the same pupil capacity show 
radical variations due to the difference in cost of material 
and labor, the quality of the finish, the amount spent for 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 135 

purely architectural effect, the number of supplementary 
rooms, and the space wasted. These features make 
it necessary to use extreme care to insure comparisons 
made on exactly the same basis. Several different units 
are employed in estimating costs, and if they all show 
the same general tendency the chances are that inferences 
drawn from them are reasonably sound. Cost per cubic 
foot is the unit often taken by school architects for 
comparative data, and the common method is to multiply 
the ground area of the building by the distance from the 
basement floor to the average height of the roof; but 
published figures are not wholly reliable because differ- 
ent architects employ different methods in ascertaining 
cubical contents, and comparisons are not valid save for 
buildings of similar construction computed by precisely 
similar methods. 

Cost per pupil is another basis frequently employed. 
Here again the cost of one building over another may be 
due to the material used, expensive finish, or additional 
accommodations such as auditorium, gymnasium, play 
room, etc. Comparative costs on this basis must specify 
the accommodations provided or they are valueless. 
The cost per classroom is open to all the objections of 
the unit based upon pupil cost, and in addition the size 
of the rooms or the number of pupils accommodated by 
them may make one building nearly twice as expensive 
as another in which the space allowance is less generous. 

Despite these inconsistencies and variations, the ex- 
perience of other communities furnishes suggestive 
information regarding costs of construction. In the 
Cleveland Survey Dr. Leonard Ayres has published 
detailed statements of building costs in five cities. 



136 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 






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•SCHOOL BUILDINGS 139 

In the report of the Survey of the Schools of Buffalo, 
N.Y., made by the State Educational Department, 

appears a table of the capacity and pupil cost of 72 high 
schools throughout the United States. Although some 

of the data given by Dr. Ayres are lacking, the Buffalo 
report furnishes a valuable basis for comparison. 

High School Data 72 Buildings 

Ch^^ Capacity ^ost^g^r 

Philadelphia, Pa Southern High School 1339 $270 

West High School 3754 311 

WiUiam Penn High School. . 2167 274 

Salt Lake City, Utah. . .West High School 2310 130 

East High School 1500 366 

Oklahoma, Okla Oklahoma High School 2100 309 

Chicago, 111 Harrison High School 2000 425 

Hyde Park High School .... 2000 300 

Senn High School 2000 300 

Cambridge, Mass High School "... 2000 125 

Paterson, N.J High School 2000 175 

MinneapoUs, Minn Central High School 2000 282 

North High School 1705 290 

Baltimore, Md Polytechnic Institute 1895 329 

Eastern High School 1541 237 

Western High School 1891 153 

Spokane, Wash High School 1800 264 

Central High School 'l500 240 

Oakland, Cal High School 1800 166 

Tacoma, Wash Stadium High School 1700 154 

Kansas City, Mo Westport High School 1300 296 

Northeast High School 1650 330 

Central High School 1500 350 

Cincinnati, Ohio Hughes High School 1600 469 

Woodward High School .... 1400 523 

Walnut Hills High School . . 675 178 

New Haven, Conn High School 1550 187 

Fort Wayne, Texas High School 1500 133 

N. Fort High School 500 120 



I40 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
High School Data 72 Buildings (Continued) 

City Capacity Costjr 

Grand Rapids, Mich. . . .Central High School 1500 300 

Union High School 1200 192 

Memphis, Tenn High School 1500 230 

High School 737 63 

Los Angeles, Cal Manual Arts High School . . 1500 234 

Lincoln High School 800 250 

Polytechnic High School. . . 1500 133 

Indianapolis, Ind High School 1500 300 

Richmond, Va Armstrong High School .... 428 51 

John Marshall High School . 1427 268 

Portland, Ore Washington High School ... 1200 199 

Lincoln High School 1400 366 

Jefferson High School 1400 218 

Duluth, Minn High School 1400 392 

Newark, N.J East Side High School 600 424 

Central High School 1400 401 

South Side High School .... 1200 304 

Johnstown, Pa High School 1400 160 

Seattle, Wash Lincoln High School 1400 264 

FrankHn High School 1000 375 

Queen Anne High School . . . 1000 250 

Worcester, Mass Central High School 1172 315 

Class High School 929 204 

South High School 800 226 

Altoona, Pa High School 1160 172 

Nashville, Tenn High School 1127 322 

Detroit, Mich Northwestern High School. . 800 404 

Western High School 1104 269 

New Orleans, La Eskalange High School 900 222 

Warren High School 1100 281 

Wright High School 900 222 

Passaic, N.J High School 1000 205 

New Bedford, Mass High School 1000 639 

Providence, R.I Technical High School 1000 233 

Hope St. High School 600 271 

East St. Louis, Mo High School 800 112 

Hoboken, N.J High School 750 332 



SCHOOL BUILDINGS 141 

High School Data 72 Buildings {Continued) 



City Capacity Cost^P" 

Mobile, Ala High School 750 100 

Waterbury, Conn High School 700 231 

Bridgeport, Conn High School 550 153 

Lancaster, Pa High School 500 352 

Allentown, Pa High School 500 1000 

Covington, Ky High School 360 139 

Average 72 schools 1315 $270 



Even a superficial consideration of the building problem 
for any community serves to reveal its complexity. The 
disposition of old buildings, once the pride of the city 
but now made obsolete by changing standards, must be 
determined. State building codes and municipal ordi- 
nances impose definite requirements. The use of the 
school as a social center involves certain modifications 
of the structure. If physical training is to be effective, 
a gymnasium is essential. If the school is large, one 
must be provided for the boys and a second for the girls. 
In many instances population growth far exceeds the 
resultant increase in ratables. Fireproof or slow burning 
construction must now be used in place of wood to reduce 
the risk to children's lives. School equipment of a type 
both hygienic and comfortable is necessary. Even this 
partial list provides an explanation for the immensely 
rapid increase in school costs in recent years. 

The American public assumes this burden cheerfully 
because of its belief in the value of education but it 
behooves every public school administrator to reduce 
this expense so far as is consistent with the welfare of 
the children. In accomplishing this purpose two guiding 



142 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

principles should be followed. First: build for utility. 
Corridors wider than are necessary, excessive size of 
rooms, and waste space should be avoided. Such ex- 
travagance usually adds little to the attractiveness of 
the building and materially increases the burden upon 
the tax payer. The second guiding principle is that the 
building should be planned to fit the needs of the children. 
In realizing this purpose no hard and fast rules can be 
formulated. Designs will vary according to local needs, 
but so long as the interests of children are the determining 
influence school authorities may rely upon the hearty 
cooperation of the public. 



CHAPTER XI 
SCHOOL HYGIENE 

Boston was the first American city to recognize the 
importance of the health conservation of public school 
children, not alone from humanitarian motives but for 
the sake of preventing the educational waste due to the 
presence of physical defects. In 1894 a system of medical 
inspection was established under the control of the Board 
of Health. The original object was the detection of 
cases of contagious disease in order to prevent the in- 
fection of other children, but this feature has sunk to 
minor importance. Today medical inspection also at- 
tempts to determine incipient physical defects which 
interfere with a child's ability to profit from school 
instruction; or, broadly speaking, it works in two fields, 
the remedial and the preventive, and of these the latter 
is the more important. It is mere common sense to 
demand that before the attempt is made to educate a 
child he shall so far as possible be prepared physically to 
receive the education. 

The prevalence of physical abnormalities is greater 
than is popularly supposed to be the case. From a 
study of all available statistics, involving millions of 
children, by the Committee on Health Problems of the 
National Council of Education, a very careful estimate 
has been made of the percentage of the physically defec- 
tive who are likely to be found in any community. 

143 



144 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
Percentage of Physical Defects — Country and City Children 





Country 


City 




Teeth Defects 


49% 


33.5% 
16.4 




Tonsils 


28.1 




Adenoids 


23.4 


12.5 




Eye Defects 


21 


13.4 




Malnutrition 


16 


7.6 




Enlarged Glands 


6.4 


2.7 




Ear Defects 


4.7 


1.3 
2.1 




Breathing Defects 


4.2 




Spinal Curvature 


3.5 


.8 




Anaemia 


1.6 


1.5 




Lung Diseases 


1.2 


.3 




Heart Disease 


7 


.4 
.2 




Mental Defects 


. . . .8 











With such a percentage of children physically handi- 
capped, it is of great importance that the school provide 
an adequate medical staff to handle the problem effec- 
tively. Experience shows that the work is more successful 
when both nurses and doctors are employed, but if 
conditions make it impossible to secure both, the physician 
should be eliminated rather than the nurse, because the 
problem is more social than medical, and the home visita- 
tion by the nurse is even more important than the original 
detection of the physical defect. When dependence is 
placed upon printed notices to parents, only a small 
fraction will be acted upon, usually not more than 5 to 
30 per cent. Insistent visits by a nurse will bring this 
proportion up to 85 or 90 per cent if she is tactful and 
convincing in her ministrations. The routine of inspec- 
tion, the treatment of parasites, small wounds and bruises, 
and other minor school ailments can be cared for by the 
nurse no less efficiently than by the physician, and the 



SCHOOL HYGIENE 14S 

employment of nurses has the further advantage of 
avoiding the professional jealousy often existing among 
school physicians. 

When a complete staff can be secured, what is the 
number needed to care for the health of school children 
in an adequate manner? Prof. L. M. Terman, of Leland 
Stanford University, gives the following as the proper 
quota: 

1 Medical Director, full time. 

1 Assistant Medical Director, half time for 6000 elementary school 

children. 
1 Woman Physician, full time for 800-1200 high school girls. 
1 Man Physician, full time for 800-1200 high school boys. 
1 Nurse, full time for every 2000 elementary school children. 
1 Dentist, half time for 10,000 pupils. 
1 Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat SpeciaHst, half time for 10,000 pupils. 

In suggesting this quota it is assumed that adjustments 
will be made for smaller school systems. The small 
community can secure reasonably adequate service 
through the help of part time physicians who are willing 
to give an hour or two a day to the schools, and through 
the employment of full time nurses to supplement this 
professional service. Arrangements can usually be made 
with the local hospital to care for minor operations, such 
as the removal of adenoids, and with local dentists to 
attend to the teeth of the children who present themselves 
with credentials approved by the nurse. 

That comparatively few cities find it possible to realize 
the ideal indicated by Dr. Terman is apparent from the 
report of a Committee on Health Problems appointed 
by the National Education Association. This report 
gives conditions in a group of selected cities. 



146 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Ratio of Children to Doctor and Nurse 

Number of Children 
City for one Number of Children 

Physician for one Nurse 

Newark, N.J 1500 7,600 

Boston, Mass 1500 3,200 

Spokane, Wash 2200 

Detroit, Mich 2400 10,250 

St. Louis, Mo 2700 • 2,800 

Chicago, 111 3300 4,600 

Mihvaukee, Wis 4200 10,250 

Cleveland, Ohio 6250 4,200 

MinneapoUs, Minn 6750 6,750 

New York, N.Y 8850 4,600 

School systems large enough to employ the full staff 
should be able to secure the needed service at approxi- 
mately the following schedule. 

Director $3000 to $3500 

Assistant Physician $1800 to $2500 

Specialist, half time $1500 

Woman Physician $2000 

Dentist $2000 

Nurses, each $700 to $1000 

Equipment $500 

Estimates vary as to the per capita cost for this de- 
partment. Dr. Terman estimates the necessary total 
cost of adequate medical supervision at from 75 cents to 
$1.00 per school child. Basing his conclusioils on the 
returns from twenty-five cities in New England, New 
York, and New Jersey, Dr. Louis W. Rapeer finds .011 
per cent of the total school budget is devoted to medical 
inspection. The amount suggested by Dr. Terman is a 
more satisfactory basis of calculation, since many of the 
cities included in the Rapeer list are conducting the work 
in an inadequate manner. 



SCHOOL HYGIENE 147 

No school system is meeting its full responsibility unless 
special accommodations are provided for atypical chil- 
dren. Among these are included children with a tuber- 
cular tendency or those who are ill-nourished and anaemic. 
Well-developed cases of tuberculosis have no place in 
the public school and should be cared for in proper in- 
stitutions unless strictly tubercular classes are established. 
Children who are predisposed to the disease may be 
saved from it if well-recognized preventive measures are 
followed. These consist of adequate nourishment and 
sleep, with an abundance of sunlight and fresh air, and 
for providing such conditions the accepted practice is 
to establish a so-called open-air school. This school 
should be strictly distinguished from the open-window 
classroom, since experience indicates that simply opening 
windows to secure a low temperature is productive rather 
of harm than good. 

The proper equipment of open-air classrooms and the 
treatment of the pupils are as completely standardized as 
for normal classes. The weight of medical and educational 
authority sanctions the following procedure: 

1. Classes should be housed in small buildings in 
parks, school yards, or on the roof of the regular school. 

2. The rooms should be open on three sides, with 
movable windows or canvas curtains to protect the 
pupils from severe wind or inclement weather. Addi- 
tional sunlight may be provided by skylights in the roof. 

3. Pupils should be assigned to the classes only after a 
careful examination by the medical inspector and should 
be reexamined weekly. 

4. Movable furniture should be provided and also 
sitting bags and additional clothing. The menu for the 



148 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

warm food given three times daily should be arranged in 
conformity with expert advice. 

5. The program should allow frequent rest periods 
and an hour's sleep in the middle of the day. This 
necessitates in addition to the classroom a well- ventilated 
room provided with cots and heavy blankets. 

6. Visits by the nurse should insure the effective 
cooperation of the home. 

7. The classes should enroll approximately twenty-five 
pupils, restricting them to two or three grades. 

Inevitably the expense of such classes is more than for 
ordinary pupils, but it is fully justified if the health and 
lives of the children are taken into consideration. 

In Montclair, N.J., the maintenance cost is as follows 
for one class: 

Maintenance — iqi6 

Teacher $1000 

Matron 634 

Helper 118 

Janitor 150 

Food for year 82 1 

Coal and gas 215 

$2938 
Per capita 146.90 

Initial Expense 

Building $700 

Furniture 150 

Clothing, etc 75 

Total $925 

Cincinnati, Omo — Twenty-five Pupils 

Building $1266 

Equipment 600 

Average maintenance $2.35 per week per child 



SCHOOL HYGIENE 149 

Newark, N.J. — Annual Cost per Pupil 

Salaries $66.04 

Supplies 44.26 

Repairs 3.36 

Miscellaneous 7.26 

Chicago — Thirty Children One Month Cost 

Transportation $46.30 

Cook and helper 30.90 

Nurse, half time 35.00 

Bread, etc 15.35 

Milk and cream 68.90 

Butter and cheese 10.42 

Eggs 44.03 

Groceries 13.59 

Fruit and vegetables 22.91 

Meat and fish 14.25 

Ice 4.00 

Sweets .85 

Tooth brushes 6.00 

Miscellaneous ^ 8.96 

$321.46 
Cost per Child per Day 

Food $ .29 

Transportation .07 

Miscellaneous .12 

Total $ .48 

The extent to which other classes for exceptional 
children are necessary depends upon the size of the 
school system. Every community should provide in 
some way for subnormal pupils. All authorities are 
agreed that the number of children of this type is from 
1.5 to 2 per cent of the total enrollment. The larger 
school systems should have classes for the deaf, estimated 



150 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

to be .5 per cent of the enrollment; classes for children 
with speech defects, estimated to be from 1 to 1.8 per cent 
of the enrollment; classes for the semi-blind, the crippled, 
and for truants and incorrigibles. 

The expense of caring for children of the types indicated 
finds full justification in the relief afforded normal classes 
by their withdrawal. Without being able to profit from 
the instruction of the ordinary classroom, they monopolize 
the time and attention of the teacher to such a degree 
that the normal children lose their rightful share. Effi- 
ciency and humanity require that they be taught in 
separate groups, where the instruction may be adapted 
to their special needs. 

The wise assignment of pupils to the kind of class in 
which they can best be taught avails little if the building 
in which the instruction is given is unhealthful. 

For the superintendent who wishes to make a general 
sanitary survey of his own school buildings, the following 
list of items may prove suggestive. 

Checking List Sanitary Survey 

Item Standard 

I. School Building. 

1. Square feet floor surface each room? 

2. Cubic feet each room ? 

3. Number occupants ? Class room 25-30 

4. Square feet floor surface per pupil ? 15 square feet. 

5. Cubic feet air space per pupil ? 200 cubic feet. 

6. Are adjustable seats used ? 

7. Are they adjusted to fit the pupils ? 

8. If seats are non-adjustable are footstools 

provided for children whose feet do not 
reach the floor ? 

9. Is a well- ventilated, clean, dry cloakroom 

provided ? 



SCHOOL HYGIENE 



151 



Checking List Sanitary Survey {Continued) 



II. 



Item 



Standard 



10. Is plenum or other system of artificial 

ventilation used? 

11. Is it in good working order ? 

12. Are some windows always open if it is 

out of order ? 
If window ventilation is used are some 

windows always open ? 
Are ventilating boards used under lower 

sash? 
Are rooms flushed with fresh air during 

intermissions ? 
If room is heated by a stove is stove 

jacketed ? 
Is cold air admitted at stove ? 
Is a direct heating system employed ? 
Is an indirect heating system employed ? 



13, 

14, 

15, 

16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 



20. Are fresh ak intakes remote from all 

sources of foul odors ? 

21. Are entrances to intakes screened ? 

22. Are halls clean and well lighted ? 

23. Are they clear of obstructions ? 
Health Conditions: 

1. Are rooms clean ? 

2. Is sweeping compound or other substance 

used in sweeping ? 

3. Has dry dusting been absolutely aban- 

doned ? 

4. Method of hghting classroom ? 

5. Does Kght surface equal 20 to 25% of floor 

space ? 

6. In redistributing pens and pencils does 

each pupil always get his own ? 

7. Are dustless crayons used ? 
Are shades yellow or linen color ? 
Are blackboards clean and black ? 
Is air kept moist ? 

Are rooms kept at proper temperature ? 
Has the roller towel been abohshed ? 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 



2000 cu. ft. of air 
per pupil per hour. 



Combination direct- 
indirect. 



Moist cloth or dust- 
less duster. 
Left side only. 



Should never be ex- 
changed. 



Humidity 40-60%. 
68-70^ 



152 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Checking List Sanitary Survey {Continued) ' 



Item Standard 



13. Is water supply pure ? 

14. Are sanitary drinking fountains pro- 

vided ? 

15. Have common drinking cups been abol- 

ished ? 

16. Are individual cups provided ? 

17. Is water stored in a covered container ? 

18. Is the container scalded daily ? 

19. Does it have a spigot at bottom ? 

III. Sanitary Conditions: 

1. Are individual self-flushing toilets pro- 

vided ? 

2. Is the number adequate ? 1 for 15 girls or 25 

boys. 

3. Are urinals of non-absorbent material 

adequate ? 1 for ten boys. 

4. Are toilets free of odors ? 

5. Are seats washed daily with disinfecting 

solution ? 

6. Are odors concealed by disinfectants ? None should be al- 



7. Are toilets free from obscene marks ? 

8. Are fixtures properly trapped ? 

9. Are soil pipes carried through roof ? 

10. Are paper holders provided ? 

1 1 . Are washing facilities suppHed ? 

IV. Fire Protection: 

1. Is a separate fire alarm installed ? 

2. Are fire extinguishers supplied ? 

3. Are iron fire escapes provided ? 

4. Are fire drills conducted regularly ? 

5. Are closets under stairways free from ac- 

cumulations of rubbish ? 

6. Are metal receptacles provided "for in- 

flammable material ? 

7. Are furnace pipes properly insulated ? 



lowed. 



CHAPTER XII 
SCHOOL FINANCE 

In view of the increasing cost of every element con- 
tributing to school expense, it is not strange that all 
municipalities are finding that the school budget increases 
more rapidly than the school enrollment. All salaries 
must be advanced because of the increased cost of living 
and the higher standards of teaching efficiency, and a 
broader curriculum and more supervision by experts add 
to the number of salaries. Books and school supplies, 
instead of being the property of the individual pupil, now 
come from the funds administered by the educational 
department. Buildings and equipment of the type once 
considered adequate no longer meet the public demand. 
The maintenance of activities formerly cared for by 
other agencies, but now delegated to the public school, 
represents additional expenditure. If the Board of 
Education is required to fulfil all these demands of the 
public, there must be an increase in the annual appropria- 
tion entrusted to it. 

Lack of standards in educational costs, makes it im- 
possible for the novice to determine the reasonableness 
of school expenditures, and in view of the complexity of 
the problem it is difficult for experts to reach a common 
agreement. Many elements complicate the question: 
the small, poor city cannot provide so generously for its 
schools as the larger, wealthy one; a city with a small 

153 



154 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

number of children to educate needs to spend less pro- 
portionately than a city with a larger ratio of children to 
adults; the homogeneous or heterogeneous character of 
the school population is another pertinent factor. 

Educational needs determine what a city ought to spend; 
resources govern the amount that it can spend. The 
generally accepted practice represents not an educational 
goal, but rather a compromise between what is desirable 
and what is possible. Of the total amount raised by 
taxation the proportion devoted to school maintenance 
indicates the relative value which the community places 
upon education. Upon the school administration de- 
volves the duty of so apportioning the funds to the 
various departments as to realize the highest possible 
returns from the expenditure. 

The following tables are based upon prevailing practices 
in various cities. In the Cleveland Survey Dr. Ayres 
gives, for eighteen cities of from 250,000 to 750,000 in- 
habitants, the amount expended for schools in comparison 
with the estimated true value of all property assessed. 

Expenditures per $1000 of Wealth, Eighteen Cities, 1914 

p,.. Property School Expendi- Expenditures per 

^^^^ Value tures— Total $1000 of Wealth 

Baltimore, Md $723,800,340 $1,954,670 $2.70 

Boston, Mass 1,489,608,820 5,516,762 3.70 

Buffalo, N.Y 494,200,459 2,449,533 4.96 

Cleveland, Ohio 756,831,185 3,569,504 4.72 

Detroit, Mich 598,634,198 2,553,488 4.27 

Indianapolis, Ind 363,413,650 1,409,504 3.88 

Jersey City, N.J 257,644,605 1,421,147 5.52 

Kansas City, Mo 371,191,014 1,761,389 4.75 

Los Angeles, Cal 836,604,260 3,706,519 4.43 

Milwaukee, Wis 511,720,797 1,794,796 3.51 



SCHOOL FINANCE 155 
Expenditures per $1000 of Wealth {Continued) 

Property School Expendi- Expenditures per 

City Value tures — Total $1000 of Wealth 

MinneapoUs, Minn. . . . 639,258,841 2,147,856 3.36 

Newark, N.J 383,864,182 2,699,239 7.03 

New Orleans, La 314,086,036 1,097,552 3.49 

Pittsburgh, Pa 789,035,200 3,602,303 4.57 

San Francisco, Cal. .. . 1,247,391,284 1,879,187 1.51 

Seattle, Wash 473,174,995 1,750,998 3.70 

St. Louis, Mo 1,125,308,749 4,084,693 3.63 

Washington, D.C 538,389,607 2,391,976 4.44 

Average 4.12 

The money a city can afford to spend for schools is 

determined by its real wealth. The great variation in 

Real Wealth behind each Dollar Spent por School • 

Maintenance ^ 

City Amount 

Atlanta, Ga $559.00 

Los Angeles, Cal 538.00 

Memphis, Tenn 449.00 

IndianapoHs, Ind 408.00 

Spokane, Wash 370.00 

Louisville, Ky 326.00 

Bridgeport, Conn 276.00 

Providence, R.I 256.00 

Albany, N.Y 234.00 

Rochester, N.Y 225.00 

Scranton, Pa 216.00 

Dayton, Ohio 208.00 

Grand Rapids, Mich 207.00 

Fall River, Mass 196.00 

Paterson, N.J 185.00 

New Haven, Conn 185.00 

Worcester, Mass 180.00 

Newark, N.J 165.00 

^ Portland Survey. 



156 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

the rate of assessment makes this the only proper basis of 
comparison between cities. The Portland Survey gives 
the amount of real wealth behind each dollar spent for 
school maintenance in a group of representative cities. 



Comparative Rates of Tax for School Maintenance 
IN Mills Based on Real Wealth ^ 



City Tax in Mills 



Newark, NJ 00606 

Toledo, Ohio 00543 

New Haven, Conn 00541 

Paterson, N.J 00541 

Lowell, Mass : .00515 

« Worcester, Mass 00505 

Grand Rapids, Mich 00483 

Scranton, Pa 00463 

Columbus, Ohio 00452 

Albany, N.Y 00427 

Bridgeport, Conn 00362 

New Orleans, La 00315 

Nash\dlle, Tenn 00285 

Spokane, Wash 00270 

St. Paul, Minn 00244 

Portland, Ore 00219 

Richmond, Va 00186 

Los Angeles, Cal 00184 

Atlanta, Ga 00180 

The basis for determining whether the school expendi- 
ture of any city is generous or illiberal appears in the per 
capita cost for schools as compared with the real wealth. 

^ Portland Survey. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 157 

Wealth and School per Capita Expenditure^ 



Assessed Per Capita 

Wealth per Basis of Real Wealth Cost of 

City Capita Assessment per Capita Schools 

Pueblo, Col $338.09 50 $676.18 $4.13 

Sioux City, la 189.64 25 758.56 6.91 

Butte, Mont 596.91 75 795.88 5.71 

Des Moines, la 232.15 25 928.60 7.26 

Kansas City, Mo 985.60 100 985.60 4.44 

Wichita, Kan. . . . , 1028.72 100 1028.72 3.99 

Lincoln, Neb 212.76 20 1063.80 6.70 

Colorado Springs, Col 400.77 33 1202.31 7.64 

Davenport, la 605.14 50 1210.28 5.27 

Topeka, Kan 1126.82 90 1252.02 5.03 

Berkeley, Cal 822.68 60 1371.13 7.60 

Salt Lake, Utah 589.23 36 1636.75 6.71 

Pasadena, Cal 1280.94 66 1921.41 10.11 

Sacramento, Cal 1042.03 50 2084.06 5.72 

San Diego, Cal 1051.05 39 2695.00 6.01 



Wealth alone does not suffice to determine what con- 
stitutes a reasonable school expenditure. It must be 
considered in connection with the number of children to 
be educated. The following table, when compared with 
the preceding one, shows this relation. 

The three cities of Lincoln, Neb., San Diego, Cal., and 
Des Moines, Iowa, may be taken as illustrating the 
application of these tables. In each case the amount 
expended for one per cent of the children in the population 
is .44. This fact if taken by itself would lead to the ex- 
pectation of finding the same unanimity in the amount 
from which the support of the local schools is drawn. By 
reference to the first table it appears that the actual 

^ Topeka Report, 1915. 



158 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



School Expenditure and per Cent of Population 5-15 

Years of Age 



Cost per Per Cent of Cost for Each 

Capita for Population 1 % Children 

City Schools 5-15 Years in Population 

Pueblo, Col $4.13 16.4 .25 

Wichita, Kan 3.99 15.4 .25 

Kansas City, Mo 4.44 16.8 .26 

Davenport, la 5.27 16.7 .31 

Topeka, Kan 5.03 15.5 .32 

Butte, Mont 5.71 15.1 .37 

Salt Lake, Utah 6.71 18.3 .37 

Lincoln, Neb 6.70 15.3 .44 

San Diego, Cal 6.01 13.4 .44 

Des Moines, la 7.26 16.5 .44 

Sacramento, Cal 5.72 12 .48 

Colorado Springs 7.64 16 .48 

Berkeley, Cal 7.60 14.7 .51 

Sioux City, la 6.91 12 .58 

Pasadena, Cal 10.11 13.6 .74 

Median .44 



wealth per capita in Lincoln is $1063, in San Diego $2695, 
and in Des Moines $928. On this showing Des Moines 
is nearly three times as generous as San Diego in support- 
ing public education. At the same time Des Moines has 
the heaviest burden of the three cities in the proportion 
of its 5-15 year old children to the entire population. 

In fixing any standard for school expenditure due 
consideration must be given to the claims of other civic 
departments. In the Salt Lake City Survey Dr. Cubberly 
shows the relation between the cost of schools and city 
maintenance. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 159 

Per Capita Cost for City Maintenance Including Interest 
Charges and per Capita and Percentage Amounts for 
Schools, Western Cities 



City Maintenance f^rCap^ta ^PerCent^ 

San Francisco, Cal... $36.09 $4.27 11.9% 

Portland, Ore ! 17.71 4.73 26.7 

Tacoma, Wash 19.99 4.95 24.7 

Seattle, Wash 22.15 5.06 24.8 

Spokane, Wash 18.87 5.41 29.7 

Butte, Mont 18.25 5.71 31.6 

Denver, Colo 21.00 5.72 28.6 

Sacramento, Cal 17.49 5.72 32.7 

Oakland, Cal 17.77 5.74 32.5 

San Diego, Cal 22.44 6.01 26.8 

San Jose, Cal 14.91 6.26 42 

Salt Lake, Utah 17.17 6.71 39.1 

Berkeley, Cal 14.74 7.60 51.3 

Colorado Springs 19.63 7.64 38.9 

Los Angeles, Cal 26.17 8.66 31.9 

Pasadena, Cal 23.38 10.11 43.3 

Average for group. . $20.48 $6.27 32.3% 

Median for group . . 19.27 5.73 31.8 

From the above table it appears that in the percentage 

of the total amount raised by taxation which is devoted 

to school maintenance, San Diego falls considerably 

below the median. This fact makes our previous com- 
parison between Des Moines and San Diego in the matter 

of school support even more creditable to the former 
city. 

The same facts are given for smaller cities, located 
largely in the central and eastern sections of the country. 



i6o METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Per Capita Cost for City Maintenance and per Capita 
AND Percentage Amounts for Schools 

Cost per Per Cent of 

City Total Maintenance Capita for Total for 

Cost per Capita Schools Schools 

Reading, Pa $9.33 $3.13 33.6 

Bridgeport, Conn 13.24 3.29 24.8 

Lowell, Mass 14.72 3.99 27.1 

Lynn, Mass 15.63 4.02 25.8 

Lawrence, Mass 14.40 4.07 28.2 

Dayton, Ohio 14.46 4.15 28.7 

Fall River, Mass 14.99 4.16 27.8 

Albany, N.Y 17.10 4.17 24.4 

Kansas City, Mo 13.10 4.22 32.2 

Troy, N.Y 18.40 4.24 23.1 

Youngstown, Ohio 11.86 4.37 36.8 

New Bedford, Mass.... 18.57 4.41 23.8 

Trenton, N J 14.88 4.85 32.6 

Camden, N.J 13.83 4.90 35.5 

Tacoma, Wash 19.99 4.95 24.8 

Omaha, Neb 20.82 4.99 24 

Somer\dlle, Mass 17.83 5.04 18.4 

Cambridge, Mass 22.30 5.14 23.5 

Grand Rapids, Mich... 13.81 5.21 37.8 

Duluth, Minn 17.22 5.24 30.2 

Spokane, Wash 18.87 5.41 29.7 

Yonkers, N.Y 22.69 6.22 27.4 

Hartford, Conn 20.94 6.26 30 

Salt Lake, Utah 17.17 6.71 39.1 

Springfield, Mass 22.55 7.07 31.3 

Des Moines, la 16.86 7.26 33.6 

Averagefor group... $16.75 $4.90 29 

Median for group .. . 16.98 4.88 28.5 

The distribution of the total amount raised by taxation 
among the different city departments shows which ones 
ought to retrench if revenues fail to equal expenditures. 



SCHOOL FINANCE i6i 

Distribution of Expenditures, Sixteen Western Cities ^ 

J. Per Capita Cost 

'- Average Median 

General Expenses $1.84 $1.52 

Police Department 1.74 1.47 

Fire Department 1.76 1.61 

Health and Sanitation 1.49 1.45 

Care of Streets 2.09 2.10 

Charities and Corrections .30 .11 

Schools 6.27 5.73 

Libraries .34 .35 

Parks and Playgrounds .59 • .51 

Miscellaneous .92 .23 

Total per capita cost $17.34 $15.08 

Interest on public debt 3.06 2.70 

Total per capita rate $20.40 , $17.78 

The Portland Survey gives a similar table for thirty- 
seven cities in different parts of the country. 

Items or City Expenditure Thirty-Seven Cities 

Item Average per Capita 

General Expenses $1.30 

Police Department 1.54 

Fire Department 1.64 

Inspection Service .19 

Health Conservation .29 

Street Cleaning and Sanitation 1.10 

Care and Lighting of Streets 1.70 

Charities and Correction .74 

Education 4.23 

Libraries and Museums .22 

Parks and Playgrounds .44 

Miscellaneous .14 

Total per capita cost $13.53 

Interest on debt 2.54 

Total per capita rate $16.07 

^ Salt Lake City Survey. 



i62 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

In the report of the BrookHne, Mass., survey, the 
percentage of distribution among the principal depart- 
ments of the total amount raised by taxation is given for 
a group of representative cities: 









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SCHOOL FINANCE 163 

Ten cities in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey 
make the following percentage distribution of their funds. ^ 

Item Average per Cent 

Schools 37.5 

General Government 9 

Police 9.1 

Fire Protection 11.4 

Other Protection 1 

Health 1.7 

Sanitation 7.4 

Highways 13.7 

Charities and Correction 3.5 

Libraries 1.5 

Recreation 2.4 

Miscellaneous .5 

General 1.3 

The annual pupil cost when interpreted in the light of 
the preceding tables becomes of great significance. The 
Cleveland Survey Report presents figures comparing the 
amounts spent per child in average daily attendance for 
operation and maintenance, and for annual improvements 
over the four year period 1911-1914 inclusive. 

Maintenance and Improvement Costs per Capita, 1914 

New Buildings, 
City Maintenance Grounds and 

Equipment 

Baltimore, Md $32.54 $8.93 

Boston, Mass 56.73 11.39 

Buffalo, N. Y 51.32 27.78 

Cleveland, Ohio 46.38 13.81 

Detroit, Mich 44.66 17.73 

^ Stamford, Connecticut Report, 1916. 



i64 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Maintenance and Improvement Costs per Capita (Continued) 

New Buildings, 
City Maintenance Grounds and 

Buildings 

Indianapolis, Ind 46.59 9.98 

Jersey City, NJ 43.17 16.63 

Kansas City, Mo 52.96 21.57 

Los Angeles, Cal 64.78 16.49 

Milwaukee, Wis 38.51 7.60 

Minneapolis, Minn 52.70 18.84 

Newark, N.J 50.25 19.19 

New Orleans, La 33.07 4.93 

Pittsburgh, Pa 58.97 12.13 

San Francisco, Cal 45.08 34.89 

Seattle, Wash 61.18 18.54 

St. Louis, Mo 52.40 10.86 

Washington, D.C 51.34 11.31 

Average 49.04 15.70 

Because of the carelessness of local officials in distribut- 
ing expenditures, a certain degree of inaccuracy is likely 
to occur in comparative statistics of this character. If 
a comparison is made with the average cost of all cities 
rather than with any single city, this error is minimized; 
because the city which has included too much under one 
category is offset by the city including too little in the 
same account. Whether the amount received for schools 
be large or small, the necessity for its equitable distribution 
is self-apparent. Some expenditures, such as those for 
teachers' salaries and books, cannot be curtailed without 
directly lowering school efficiency, so the proper appor- 
tionment of funds is of extreme importance. The follow- 
ing table from the Salt Lake City Survey attempts to 
furnish a guide. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 165 

Distribution of School Expenditure in per Cents — 16 Cities 

Item Average Median Highest Lowest 

Administration 3.3 3 4.6 1.8 

Supervision 9.1 9.7 15.3 3.4 

Teachers' Salaries 67.2 64.8 71.6 60 

Janitors and Labor 5.9 5.5 10.8 4.2 

Textbooks and Supplies 5.4 4.8 11.9 1.6 

Fuel, Power, Water etc 3.7 3.5 8 1.2 

Maintenance and Repairs 6 5.7 12.1 3.1 

Health Conservation .4 .2 1.2 .0 

Miscellaneous 5 1.9 2.7 .0 

Based on the practice in twelve eastern cities the actual 
distribution of a total expenditure of $40.28 is as follows. 

Average per Capita Expenditure in Twelve Eastern Cities 

Purpose Amount Per Cent 

Salaries of Teachers $25.88 64.2% 

Principals 2.95 7.3 

Janitors and Engineers 2.85 7.1 

Repairs 2.28 5.6 

Fuel 1.46 3.6 

SuppHes 1.39 3.4 

Board of Education Office .85 2.1 

Supervisors .73 1.8 

Light and power .73 1.8 

Superintendent's Office .63 1.5 

Other Expenses .53 1.3 

Total $40.28 

From the nature of its organization, the expenditure 
for the high school must exceed that of the elementary 
school, but unless reasonable care is exercised the former 
will absorb more than its share of the available funds. 
Although the principle of the free high school is firmly 
established in this country, it should not be forgotten 



i66 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

that many pupils will never receive a secondary school 
education, and thus to allow a disproportionate amount 
to the high schools at the expense of the elementary 
schools is an unsound educational policy. 

Distribution of Maintenance Costs Between Elementary and 
High Schools, Based on Average Daily Attendance 

p.. Pupil per Capita Pupil per Capita AnenrlaTrp 

^^^y High School Elementary School jllgh Schoof 

Springfield, III $66.49 $38.44 

New Britain, Conn 68.13 27.90 

Maiden, Mass 69.13 31.56 

Tacoma, Wash 71.80 37.07 15 

Omaha, Neb 75.11 35.56 U 

Portland, Ore 76.42 41.95 12 

Holyoke, Mass 77.19 39.34 

Salt Lake, Utah 78.89 41.79 9 

San Jose, Cal 80.33 38.16 21 

Oakland, Cal 80.94 42.53 13 

Kansas City, Mo 82.30 34.88 14 

Denver, Colo 82.78 38.12 13 

Minneapolis, Minn 84.83 42.31 14 

Montclair, N.J 85.38 56.17 18 

Pueblo, Colo 86.73 34.30 12 

Spokane, Wash 92.56 44.33 14 

Los Angeles, Cal 120.07 50.38 15 

Seattle, Wash 101.14 43.92 16 

Bayonne, N.J 102.66 36.40 

San Diego, Cal 104.06 42.91 15 

A statistical study of school reports made by J. T. 
Giles, of Richmond, Indiana, gives in convenient form 
the comparative expenditure for elementary schools and 
high schools in twenty-five cities of Indiana which have a 
population of more than 10,000. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 167 

Comparative Expenditures Elementary and High Schools 

P , Column I Column II Column III Column IV Column V 

^^^ City Ratio City Ratio City Ratio City Ratio City Ratio 

1 U 58 H 94 Y 90 I 45.63 S 85.70 

2 J 51 Y 94 T 89 C 32.24 H 79.79 

3 S 48 T 90 X 88 H 31.05 V 77.92 

4 W 47 G 90 G 88 D 30.67 B 75.04 

5 X 45 P 88 U 86 N 30.49 N 74.04 

6 K 44 I 87 O 85 E 29.81 U 72.41 

7 M 44 X 87 Q 83 A 29.80 C 72.26 

8 N 41 U 87 J 81 B 28.45 D 68.82 

9 V 39 C 86 P 81 W 28.43 E 67.47 

10 F 39 O 83 S 81 L 27.55 A 67.12 

11 Q 37 R 82 A 78 F 27.48 I 66.98 

12 C 37 Q 81 E 78 P 27.20 T 58.76 

13 R 35 N 79 K 78 T 26.41 J 57.02 

14 D 33 F 77 C 76 V 24.57 F 56.83 

15 Y 31 B 76 V 76 S 24.52 K 55.55 

16 B 31 M 76 W 76 J 23.72 M 55 

17 L 31 L 76 D 76 G 23.18 Y 52 

18 P 31 J 74 F 75 U 23.11 W 50.93 

19 A 30 W 73 R 73 K 22.18 L 49.26 

20 E 30 A 71 B 71 Q 21.50 Q 47.19 

21 O 27 E 68 H 71 M 20.63 X 43.91 

22 T 27 V 67 L 70 X 20.26 G 41.18 

23 G 25 S 66 M 68 Y 19.11 R 41.09 

24 H 20 K 65 N 66 O 18.96 O 39.53 

25 I 13 D 53 I 54 R 18.65 P 39.28 

Explanation of Table 

Column I shows the ratio of total high school expenditure to total grade 
expenditure; illustration, City U spends 58 per cent as much for high school 
as for grades. The median is 35 per cent. 

Column II shows the ratio of the amount paid for teaching in high 
school to total cost in high school; illustration, City H spends 94 per cent 
of total expenditure for teaching. The median is 79 per cent. 

Column III shows similar facts for the grades; illustration, City Y 
devotes 90 per cent of total grade expenditure to teaching. The median 
is 78 per cent. 



1 68 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Column IV shows the average annual cost per pupil enrolled in the 
grades; illustration, the annual cost in City I for each elementary school 
pupil is $45.63. The median is $26.41. 

Column V shows the same facts for high school pupils; illustration, 
the annual cost in City S for each high school pupil is $85.70. The median 
is $57.02. 

In making a careful analysis of school expenses it is 
often desirable to know the exact cost of various items 
of school expenditure. The superintendent may wish 
to decide whether the school system is paying more for 
supervision than it can afford; or possibly the suggestion 
is made that a reduction in expenses be effected by 
curtailing the expenditure for books or supplies. In 
some instances carelessness on the part of the janitors 
has resulted in an excessive cost for light. Inefficient 
engineers and firemen, through a wastage of coal, cause 
an unreasonable expense. When the demand is made 
for economy in school expenditure it is a mistaken policy 
to reduce the appropriation on no better basis than mere 
opinion. A certain standard of service requires pro- 
portionate cost, and if this is reduced it may be at the 
expense of efficiency. The only satisfactory method for 
determining whether or not the cost of any item or any 
activity is reasonable is to make a comparison of the 
local cost with similar service in other school systems. 
In doing this the larger the number of systems entering 
into the calculation the more accurate the conclusion, 
since excessive cost in one case is neutralized by the 
low cost in another. The average, or the median, is 
always a safer base to use than any single instance. To 
enable a superintendent to check up the details of the 
local budget, the important items are presented in the 
following tables: 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



169 



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vO><^OOOJOO>fi.ONC\vOOO 



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to 0\ '-' '^ 



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170 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

One of the most recent investigations of school costs 
appears in the report of the School Survey of Brookhne, 
Massachusetts, made under the direction of Dr. James 
Van Sickle, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, 
Massachusetts. These figures were compiled from un- 
published data in the office of the United States Com- 
missioner of Education and represent an average for the 
years 1914-1915 and 1915-1916. The number of pupils 
in average daily attendance is used as the divisor. 

Based as these tables are, upon the figures from seven- 
teen selected cities and representing in each case an 
average for two years, they furnish a very definite basis 
of comparison for any superintendent. 

Seventeen Selected Cities 

Average Expenses of General Control per Capita of Average 
Daily Attendance in Day Schools for Years 1914-15 and 
1915-16 

1. Montclair $3.55 11. Pasadena $2.04 

2. Milton 3.36 12. Newton 1.99 

3. Wellesley 3.27 13. New Rochelle 1.98 

4. Colorado Springs 2.77 14. Springfield 1.94 

5. White Plains 2.72 15. Yonkers 1.83 

6. Evanston 2.67 16. Berkeley 1.48 

7. Brookline 2.62 17. Oak Park 1.41 

8. San Diego 2.41 

9. East Orange 2.35 Boston 3.05 

10. Madison 2.17 Los Angeles 3.68 

Average Expenses of Elementary Schools per Capita of Aver- 
age Daily Attendance for Years 1914-15 and 1915-16 

1. Montclair $77.90 6. Berkeley 55.20 

2. Pasadena 65.03 7. Milton 53.i: 

3. Brookline 62.84 8. San Diego 50.1^ 

4. Evanston 55.38 9. White Plains 46.91 

5. Wellesley 55.35 10. Newton 46.72 



SCHOOL FINANCE 171 

11. Oak Park $46.51 16. Yonkers 43.96 

12. Colorado Springs 46.39 17. Madison 37.37 

13. East Orange 46.24 

14. New Rochelle 45.49 Boston 45.54 

15. Springfield 44.79 Los Angeles 60.11 

Average Expenses of Secondary Schools per Capita of Average 
Daily Attendance for Years 1914-15 and 1915-16 in Group of 
Fifteen Selected Cities 

1. Pasadena $139.50 10. Wellesley $85.26 

2. San Diego 123.79 11. Colorado Springs 76.92 

3. BrookHne 116.80 12. Yonkers 75.85 

4. Springfield 106.92 13. Newton 74.38 

5. New Rochelle 98.40 14. Madison 66.91 

6. Montclair 93.70 15. Milton 58.68 

7. East Orange 93.43 

8. White Plains 92.39 Boston 83.21 

9. Berkeley 91.04 Los Angeles 157.09 

Proportion of Total Expenses Expended for General Control, 
Elementary Schools and Secondary Schools 

General Elementary Secondary 

Cities Control Schools Schools 

Milton 2.8 46.1 51.1 

Wellesley 2.3 38.5 59.2 

Colorado Springs 2.2 36.8 61.1 

Montclair 2 44.5 53.5 

Madison 2 35.2 62.8 

White Plains 1.9 33.1 65 

East Orange 1.6 32.6 65.8 

Newton 1.6 38 60.4 

Yonkers 1.5 36.2 62.3 

Brookline 1.4 34.4 64.2 

New Rochelle 1.4 31.2 69.4 

San Diego 1.3 28.8 69.9 

Springfield 1.1 28.7 70.2 

Berkeley 1 37.4 61.6 

Pasadena 1 31.5 67.5 . 

Median 1.6 35.2 62.8 

Boston 2.3 34.6 63.1 

Los Angeles 1.7 27.2 -71.1 



172 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



Average Cost per Pupil for Years 1914-15 and 1915-16 of Various 
Classes of Expenses of Elementary Schools Arranged in Order 
OF Their Amounts 



(a) 
Salaries and Expenses of 

SuPERXaSORS 



1. Milton 

2. Montclair 

3. Oak Park 

4. White Plains 

5. San Diego 

6. Evanston 

7. Wellesley 

8. Newton 

9. Berkeley 

10. Colorado Springs. 

11. Springfield 

12. New Rochelle 

13. Madison 

14. Brookline 

15. East Orange 

16. Yonkers 

17. Pasadena 



55.38 1 
4.83 
3.88 
3.49 
2.76 
2.75 
2.15 
1.74 
1.41 
1.31 
1.13 
1.12 
1 

.98 
.94 
.64 



Boston 66 

Los Angeles 1.43 



(b) 

Salaries and Expenses of 

Principals 

1. Brookline $6.63 

2. Pasadena 6.63 

3. East Orange 5 

4. Colorado Springs 4.63 

5. Yonkers 4.14 

6. Berkeley 4.12 

7. San Diego 4.03 

8. New Rochelle 3.99 

9. Madison 3.77 

10. Newton 3.65 

11. Montclair 3.55 

12. Springfield 2.65 

13. WeUesley 2.03 

14. White Plains 1.67 

15. Oak Park 1.22 

16. Evanston 27 

17. Milton 

Boston 2.61 

Los Angeles 5.10 



(c) 

Salaries of Teachers in Elementary 

Schools 

1. Pasadena $44.37 

2. Montclair 43.33 

3. Berkeley 38.81 

4. Brookline 35.51 

5. Wellesley 33.26 

6. San Diego 32.14 

7. Evanston 31.66 

8. Milton 30.47 

9. Yonkers 29.80 

10. New Rochelle 29.27 

11. White Plains 29.26 

12. Colorado Springs 29 



(d) 
Textbooks — Elementary 
Schools 

1. White Plains $1.39 

2. Wellesley 1.19 

3. Brookline 1.14 

4. Montclair 97 

5. Springfield ' .94 

6. East Orange 91 

7. Yonkers 82 

8. Milton 71 

9. Newton 66 

10. New Rochelle 62 

11. Colorado Springs 50 

12. Evanston 19 



^ Includes principals. 



SCHOOL 

13. East Orange 28.88 

14. Springfield 28.06 

15. Newton 27.97 

16. Oak Park 27.56 

17. Madison 21.50 

Boston 30.42 

Los Angeles 40.44 

ie) 

Stationery, Sxjpplies and Other 

Expenses of Instruction 

1. Montclair $4.39 

2. Evanston 3.54 

3. White Plains 2.72 

4. San Diego 2.46 

5. Berkeley 2.44 

6. Springfield 2.32 

7. BrookHne 1.85 

8. Wellesley 1.74 

9. Pasadena 1.74 

10. MUton 1.72 

11. Colorado Springs 1.65 

12. Oak Park 1.45 

13. East Orange 1.44 

14. New RocheUe 1.26 

15. Yonkers 1.04 

16. Newton 1.01 

17. Madison 76 

Boston 1.24 

Los Angeles 1.52 

ig) 
Heat, Light, Water, Power and 

Janitors' Supplies 

1. Evanston $4.86 

2. Montclair 4.74 

3. Brookline 4.74 

4. Milton 4.35 

5. Oak Park 4.19 

6. Wellesley 3.74 

7. Madison 3.51 

8. Springfield 3.39 



FINANCE 173 

13. Madison 10 

14. Pasadena 

15. Berkeley 

16. San Diego 

17. Oak Park 

Boston 74 

Los Angeles 

Wages of Janitors 

1. Montclair $6.10 

2. Brookline 5.40 

3. Milton 5.31 

4. Wellesley 4.83 

5. Evanston 4.78 

6. Oak Park 4.36 

7. Pasadena 3.69 

8. New RocheUe 3.68 

9. East Orange , 3.44 

10. Berkeley 3.37 

11. Newton 3.26 

12. Springfield 3.18 

13. White Plains 2.92 

14. San Diego 2.90 

15. Yonkers 2.84 

16. Colorado Springs 2.61 

17. Madison 2.59 

Boston 3 

Los Angeles 3.11 

{h) 

Maintenance (Repairs and 

Replacements) 

1. Evanston $6.31 

2. Newton 4.76 

3. Montclair 4.65 

4. Brookhne 4.44 

5. Pasadena 4.39 

6. Berkeley 3.44 

7. San Diego 3.40 

8. Oak Park 3.09 



174 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



(g) (Continued) 

9. New Rochelle 2.98 

10. Colorado Springs 2.67 

11. White Plains 2.42 

12. East Orange 2.40 

13. Newton 2.32 

14. Pasadena 1.68 

15. Yonkers 1.66 

16. Berkeley 1.20 

17. San Diego 1.13 

Boston 1.98 

Los Angeles 1.17 



(h) {Continued) 

9. Colorado Springs 2.98 

10. Springfield 2.71 

11. Milton 2.47 

12. WeUesley 2.47 

13. East Orange 2.46 

14. Yonkers 2.26 

15. Madison 2.22 

16. White Plains 2.20 

17. New Rochelle 2.11 

Boston 3.20 

Los Angeles 2.94 



(i) 

LlBIURIES 

1. Pasadena $ .83 

2. San Diego 

3. Oak Park 

4. Berkeley 

5. Evanston 



6. Wellesley. 



7. White Plains 

8. Yonkers 

9. Montclair 

10. New Rochelle. . . . 

11. Colorado Springs. 

12. Madison 

13. East Orange 

14. Springfield 

15. Yonkers 

16. Brookline 

17. Newton 



.56 
.45 
.40 
.14 
.12 
.08 
.06 
.05 
.03 
.02 
.01 
.01 



Boston 

Los Angeles , 



.40 



0') 

Promotion of Health 

1. Montclair 

2. Milton 

3. Newton 

4. Brookline 

5. San Diego 

6. Evanston 

7. Pasadena 

8. East Orange 

9. Yonkers 

10. Wellesley 

11. Berkeley 

12. Madison 

13. White Plains 

14. Colorado Springs 

15. New Rochelle 

Oak Park 

Springfield 

Boston 

Los Angeles 



16. 
17. 



.27 
.82 
.76 
.75 
.63 
.62 
.61 
.48 
.44 
.39 
.38 
.34 
.28 
.26 
.25 
.19 

.43 
.39 



(k) 



Transportation of Pupils 

Wellesley $1.68 

Madison 1.59 

San Diego 98 

Brookline 78 



(/) 

Miscellaneous, Including Payments 

TO Other Schools, Pensions, 

Rent, etc. 

1. Montclair 



$3.82 

2. Wellesley 1.68 

3. Madison 1.59 

4. Pasadena 1.10 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



175 



10. 

11. 

12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 



Colorado Springs. 

White Plains 

Evanston 

East Orange 

New Rochelle. . . . 

Newton 

Berkeley 

Oak Park 

Montclair 

Springfield 

Yonkers 

Milton 

Pasadena 

Boston 

Los Angeles 



.76 
.48 
.26 
.21 
.18 
.15 
.13 
.12 
.03 



.01 
.02 



5. San Diego 

6. Brookline 

7. Colorado Springs , 

8. White Plains .... 

9. Evanston 

10. East Orange 

11. New Rochelle. . . 

12. Newton 

13. Berkeley 

14. Oak Park 

15. Springfield 

16. Yonkers 

17. Milton 

Boston 



.98 
.90 
.76 
.48 
.26 
.21 
.18 
.15 
.13 
.12 



1.25 



Los Angeles 3.61 



The following table furnishes the data relating to the 
percentage distribution of expenses in elementary schools. 

Proportion of Total Expenses of Elementary Schools Expended 
FOR Each Class of Expenses in fifteen Selected Cities in the 
Years 1914-15 and 1915-16, Arranged in Order of Their Amounts i 

(a) 
Salaries and Expenses of 
sxjpervisors 

1. Milton 10.1 

2. White Plains 7.4 

3. Montclair 6.2 

4. San Diego 5.4 

5. Wellesley 3.9 

6. Newton 3.7 

7. Colorado Springs 2.8 

8. Madison 2.7 

9. Berkeley 2.6 

10. New Rochelle 2.5 

11. Springfield 2.5 

12. East Orange 2.4 

13. Brookline 1.6 

14. Yonkers. . . . ; 1.5 



15. Pasadena. 



(b) 

Salaries and Expenses of 

Principals 

1. BrookUne 10.6 

2. Pasadena 10.3 

3. Madison 10.1 

4. Colorado Springs 10 

5. Yonkers 9.4 

6. New Rochelle 8.8 

7. San Diego 7.9 

8. Newton 7.8 

9. Berkeley 7.5 

10. Springfield 5.9 

11. Montclair 4.6 

12. Wellesley 3.7 

13. White Plains 3.6 

14. East Orange 1.1 

15. Milton 



^ Evanston and Oak Park, 111., are not included because their high schools are 
not a part of the city system of schools and data relating to them are not avail- 
able. 



176 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



(c) 
Salaries of Teachers 

1. Berkeley 

2. Pasadena 

3. Yonkers 

4. New Rochelle 

5. Springfield 

6. Colorado Springs 

7. East Orange 

8. White Plains 

9. San Diego 

10. Wellesley 

11. Newton 

12. Madison 

13. Milton 

14. Brookline 

15. Montclair 



69.4 

68.3 

67.7 

64.3 

62.6 

62.5 

62.5 

62.4 

60.3 

60 

59.9 

57.5 

57.4 

56.6 

55.8 



ie) 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



Stationary, Supplies and Other 
Expenses of Instruction 

White Plains 5.8 

Montclair 5.6 

Springfield 5.2 

Milton 4.8 

Berkeley 4.4 

Colorado Springs 3.6 

WeUesley 3.2 

Milton 3.2 

East Orange 3.1 

Brookline 2.9 

New Rochelle 2.8 

Pasadena 2.7 

Yonkers 2.4 

Newton 2.2 

Madison 2.1 



{d) 
Textbooks 

1. White Plains 3 

2. Wellesley 2.2 

3. Springfield 2.1 

4. Yonkers 1.9 

5. Brookhne 1.8 

6. Newton 1.4 

7. New Rochelle 1.4 

8. Milton 1.3 

9. Montclair 1.3 

10. Colorado Springs 1.1 

11. Madison 3 

12. East Orange 2 

13. Pasadena 

14. Berkeley 

15. San Diego 



(0 
Wages of Janitors 

1. Milton 

2. Wellesley 

3. Brookline 

4. New Rochelle 

5. Montclair 

6. East Orange 

7. Springfield 

8. Newton 

9. Madison 

10. Yonkers 

11. White Plains 

12. Berkeley 

13. Pasadena 

14. San Diego 

15. Colorado Springs 



10 

8.7 

8.6 

8.1 

7.9 

7.5 

7.1 

7 

6.9 

6.5 

6.2 

6.1 

5.7 

5.7 

5.6 



{g) 

Heat, Light, Water, Power and 

Janitors' Supplies 

1. Madison 9.4 1. 

2. Milton 8.2 2. 

3. Springfield 7.6 3. 

4. Brookline 7.1 4. 



{h) 
Maintenance (Repairs and 
Replacement) 

Newton .• 

Brookline 

Pasadena 

San Diego 



10.2 
7.1 
6.8 
6.7 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



177 



5. Wellesley 6.8 

6. New Rochelle 6.6 

7. Montclair 6.1 

8. Colorado Springs 5.8 

9. East Orange 5.2 

10. White Plains 5.2 

11. Newton '. 5 

12. Yonkers 3.8 

13. Pasadena 2.6 

14. Berkeley 2.2 

15. San Diego 2.2 

ii) 
Libraries 

1. Pasadena 1.3 

2. San Diego 1.1 

3. Berkeley 7 

4. Wellesley 2 

5. White Plains 2 

6. Montclair 1 

7. New Rochelle 1 

8. Yonkers 1 

9. Colorado Springs 

10. East Orange 

11. Madison 

12. Brookline 

13. Milton 

14. Newton 

15. Springfield 

ik) 

Transportation of Pupils 

1. Milton 3.6 

2. WeUesley 3.2 

3. Brookline 1.2 

4. Newton 1 

5. Yonkers 7 

6. East Orange 2 

7. Montclair 

8. Pasadena 

9. Berkeley 

10. San Diego 



5. Colorado Springs 6.4 

6. Berkeley 6.2 

7. Springfield 6.1 

8. Montclair 6 

9. Madison 6 

10. East Orange 5.3 

11. Yonkers 5.2 

12. Milton 4.7 

13. White Plains 4.7 

14. New Rochelle 4.6 

15. Wellesley 4.5 

^^ 
Promotion of Health 

1. Montclair 1.6 

2. Milton 1.6 

3. Newton 1.6 

4. East Orange 1.4 

5. Brookline 1.2 

6. San Diego 1.2 

7. Yonkers 1 

8. Pasadena 9 

9. Madison 9 

10. Wellesley 7 

11. Berkeley 7 

12. White Plains 6 

13. Colorado Springs 6 

14. New Rochelle 6 

15. Springfield 

{/) 

Miscellaneous, Including Payment 

TO Other Schools, Pensions, 

Rent, etc. 

1. Montclair 4.9 

2. Madison 4.3 

3. Wellesley 3.1 

4. San Diego 1.9 

5. Pasadena 1.7 

6. Colorado Springs 1.6 

7. Brookline 1.4 

8. White Plains 1 

9. East Orange 5 

10. New Rochelle 4 



lyS METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

(k) (Continued) (I) (Continued) 

11. White Plains 11. Newton 3 

12. Colorado Springs 12. Berkeley 2 

13. New Rochelle 13. Milton 

14. Springfield 14. Springfield 

15. Madison 15. Yonkers 



Taking the median proportions in these classes of 
expenses as the standards which joined together represent 
an ideal group standard for distribution of expenses, we 
can have by expressing the deviations of any expense 
from its standard in terms of the percentage of the stand- 
ard, a fairly exact measure of the extent of the departure 
from the norm for that class of expense. In other words, 
we can thus obtain a coefficient of deviation from the 
standard for each kind of expense. These coefficients for 
any city, taken all together, reveal the extent to which that 
city is out of balance with the group standard.^ Those for 
Brookline are given in the following table as an illustration. 

A Comparison of the Distribution of Expenses of Elementary 
Schools in Brookline with the Distribution in fifteen Selected 

^^^^^ Coefficients of 

Standard Brookline — Deviation — - 

Distribution Distribution Above Below 

Supervisors 2.7 1.6 .... -40 

Principals 7.8 10.6 +36 

Teachers 62.4 56.6 .... -09 

Textbooks 1.8 1.8 +29 

Stationery 2.9 3.2 +10 

Janitors 7 8.6 +23 

Heat, light and janitors' supplies. 5.8 7.1 +22 

Maintenance (repairs) 6 7.1 +18 

Libraries .1 

Health 9 1.2 +26 

Transportation 1 1.2 +20 

Miscellaneous 1.2 1.4 +17 

Total 99.6 100.4 

^ Quoted from the Brookline report. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



179 



Analysis of Costs — Secondary Schools 

Average Cost per Pupil in fifteen Selected Cities for Years 
1914-15 AND 1915-16 OF Various Classes of Expenses of 
Secondary Schools Arranged in Order of Their Amounts 



(a) 

Salaries and Expenses of 

Supervisors 



(b) 

Salaries and Expenses of 

Principals 



1. Wellesley $12.30^ 1. Brookline $10.19 



2. Milton 

3. White Plains 

4. Montclair 

5. Brookline 

6. Yonkers 

7. New Rochelle. . . . 

8. Madison 

9. San Diego 

10. Newton 

11. Pasadena 

12. Colorado Springs. 

13. Springfield 

14. East Orange 

15. Berkeley 

Boston 

Los Angeles 



5.551 
5.51 
4.68 
3.54 
3.20 
2.36 
1.98 
1.33 
.83 



1.13 



2. New Rochelle. . . , 

3. Newton 

4. Springfield , 

5. Pasadena 

6. East Orange 

7. Madison 

8. Berkeley 

9. Yonkers 

10. San Diego 

11. Colorado Springs. 

12. White Plains 

13. Milton 

14. Wellesley 

15. Montclair 



Boston 

Los Angeles . 



5.97 
5.87 
5.77 
4.42 
4.32 
3.84 
3.70 
3.65 
3.47 
3.20 
2.57 



4.50 
8.46 



(c) 
Salaries of Teachers 

1. Pasadena $94.82 

2. San Diego 83.24 

3. Brookline 78.60 

4. Montclair 73.16 

5. Berkeley 72.79 

6. Springfield 70.10 

7. East Orange 64.95 

8. New Rochelle 57.41 

9. Yonkers 54.92 

10. Newton 53.42 

11. White Plains 52.68 

12. Colorado Springs 50.58 



(d) 
Textbooks 

1. White Plains $4.37 

2. New Rochelle 2.93 

3. East Orange 2.68 

4. Wellesley 2.61 

5. Yonkers 2.60 

6. Brookline 2.55 

7. Springfield 2.53 

8. Montclair 2.42 

9. Colorado Springs 1.61 

10. Newton 1.38 

11. Milton 82 

12. Madison 12 



1 Supervisors' and principals' salaries and expenses combined. ^ See (i). 



i8o METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



(c) {Continued) 

13. Wellesley 49.92 

14. Madison 44.30 

15. Milton 36.51 

Boston 62.22 

Los Angeles 115.18 



id) {Continued) 

13. Pasadena 

14. Berkeley 

15. San Diego 

Boston 3.22 

Los Angeles 



(e) 

Stationery, Supplies and Other 

Expenses of Instruction 

1. San Diego $8.67 

2. East Orange 7.82 

3. White Plains 7.49 

4. Wellesley 7.30 

5. Pasadena 7.09 

6. Springfield 7 

7. Brookline 6.61 

8. NewRochelle 6.23 

9. Montclair 4.86 

10. Colorado Springs 4.82 

11. Milton 4.61 

12. Newton 3.63 

13. Madison 3.44 

14. Berkeley 3.30 

15. Yonkers 2.48 

Boston 3.61 

Los Angeles 7.23 



(0 
Wages of Janitors 

1. San Diego $8.67 

2. East Orange 7.82 

3. Brookline 7.76 

4. White Plains 7.49 

5. Wellesley 7.30 

6. Pasadena 7.09 

7. Springfield 7 

8. New Rochelle 6.23 

9. Montclair 4.86 

10. Colorado Springs 4.82 

11. Milton 4.61 

12. Newton 3.63 

13. Madison 3.44 

14. Berkeley 3.30 

15. Yonkers 2.48 

Boston 3.61 

Los Angeles 7.23 



(g) 
Heat, Light, Water, Power and 

Janitors' Supplies 

1. White Plains $6.38 

2. Wellesley 5.92 

3. East Orange 5.68 

4. Springfield 5.54 

5. Madison 5.54 

6. Montclair 4.75 

7. Milton 4.40 

8. Colorado Springs 4.35 

9. New Rochelle 4.32 

10. Pasadena 4.25 



ih) 

Maintenance (Repairs and 

Replacement) 

1. San Diego $15.03 

2. Pasadena 13.20 

3. Colorado Springs 6.69 

4. Springfield 4.51 

5. Berkeley 4.43 

6. Newton 4.20 

7. Yonkers 4.06 

8. White Plains 3.83 

9. New Rochelle 3.56 

10. Milton 2.68 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



l8l 



11. San Diego 3.64 

12. Brookline 3.18 

13. Newton 2.57 

14. Yonkers 1.62 

15. Berkeley 1.41 

Boston 2.71 

Los Angeles 3.27 



11. East Orange. 

12. Brookline. . . 

13. Madison. . . . 

14. Wellesley. . . 

15. Montclair. . . 



Boston 

Los Angeles. 



2.50 
2.48 
2.32 
1.85 
.82 

2.32 
7.96 



(i) 
Libraries 

1. Pasadena $2.27 

2. White Plains 2.19 

3. San Diego 1.74 

4. Colorado Springs 1.20 

5. East Orange 1.03 



6. Berkeley 

7. New Rochelle. 

8. Montclair . . . . 

9. Yonkers 

10. Madison 

11. Wellesley 

12. Springfield 

13. Milton 

14. Brookline. . . . 

15. Newton 



.92 
.28 
.08 
.06 
.03 
.03 



0') 

Health 

1. White Plains 

2. Madison 

3. Montclair 

4. Brookline 

5. East Orange 

6. Yonkers 

7. New Rochelle . . . 

8. San Diego 

9. Wellesley 

10. Springfield 

11. Pasadena 

12. Milton 

13. Newton 

14. Colorado Springs . 

15. Berkeley 



1.12 
.55 
.52 
.49 
.42 
.14 
.10 
.08 
.03 



Boston 

Los Angeles 2.62 



Boston 01 

Los Angeles 1.58 



(k) 
Miscellaneous 



New Rochelle $10.05 



Pasadena 

Madison 

Brookline 

San Diego 

6. Colorado Springs. 

7. Wellesley 

8. East Orange 

9. Berkeley 



3.58 

3.19 

1.43 

1.33 

1.30 

.46 

.41 

.09 



10. Montclair $ .06 

1 1 . Springfield 

12. Newton 

13. Yonkers 

14. Milton 

15. White Plains 

Boston 1.46 

Los Angeles 4.42 



i82 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



Proportion of Total Expenses of Secondary Schools in Fifteen 
Selected Cities Expended for Each Class of Expenses in the 
Years 1914-15 and 1915-16, Arranged in Order of Their Amounts 



(a) 
Supervisors' Salaries and Expenses 

1. Wellesley 14.4 

2. Milton 9.5 

3. White Plains 6 

4. Montclair 5 

5. Yonkers 4.2 

6. Brookline 3 

7. Madison 3 

8. NewRochelle 2.4 

9. San Diego 1.1 

10. Newton 1.1 

1 1 . Pasadena 

12. Springfield 

13. East Orange 

14. Berkeley 

15. Colorado Springs 



(b) 
Principals' Salaries and Expenses 

1. Brookline 8.7 

2. Newton 7.9 

3. New Rochelie 6.1 

4. Madison 5.7 

5. Springfield 5.4 

6. Yonkers 4.8 

7. East Orange 4.6 

8. Colorado Springs 4.2 

9. Berkeley 4.1 

10. Pasadena 3.2 

11. San Diego 2.8 

12. White Plains 2.8 

13. Montclair 

14. Wellesley 

15. Milton 



(c) 
Teachers' Salaries 

1. Berkeley 80 

2. Montclair 78.1 

3. Yonkers 72.4 

4. Newton 71.8 

5. East Orange 69.5 

6. Colorado Springs 68.4 

7. Pasadena 67.8 

8. Brookline 67.2 

9. San Diego 67.1 

10. Madison 66.2 

11. Springfield 65.4 

12. Milton 62.2 

13. Wellesley 58.5 

14. New Rochelie. 58.4 

15. White Plains 57 



id) 
Textbooks 

1. Pasadena 5.4 

2. White Plains 4.7 

3. Yonkers 3.4 

4. Wellesley 3.1 

5. New Rochelie 3 

6. East Orange 2.9 

7. Montclair 2.6 

8. Springfield 2.4 

9. Brookline 2.2 

10. Colorado Springs 2.1 

11. Newton 1.9 

12. MUton 1.4 

13. Madison 2 

14. San Diego 

15. Berkeley 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



183 



(e) 
Stationery and Instruction Supplies 

1. Springfield 8.4 

2. Milton 7 

3. White Plains 5.7 

4. Wellesley 5.7 

5. Brookline 5.6 

6. New Rochelle 5.3 

7. Berkeley 4.8 

8. Colorado Springs 4.2 

9. San Diego 4.1 

10. Wellesley 4 

11. East Orange 3.9 

12. Newton 3.3 

13. Montclair 2.5 

14. Madison 2.4 

15. Pasadena 7 



(J) 
Janitors' Salaries 

1. Wellesley 8.6 

2. East Orange 8.4 

3. White Plains 8.1 

4. Milton 7.8 

5. San Diego 7 

6. Brookline 6.6 

7. Springfield 6.5 

8. New Rochelle 6.3 

9. Colorado Springs 6.3 

10. Montclair 5.2 

11. Madison 5.1 

12. Newton 4.9 

13. Berkeley 3.6 

14. Yonkers 3.3 

15. Pasadena 2.4 



(g) 

Heat, Light, Water, Power and 

Janitors' Supplies 

1. Madison 8.3 

2. Milton 7.5 

3. White Plains 6.9 

4. Wellesley 6.9 

5. East Orange 6.1 

6. Colorado Springs 5.7 

7. Springfield 5.2 

8. Montclair 5.1 

9. New Rochelle 4.4 

10. Newton 3.5 

11. Pasadena 3 

12. San Diego 2.9 

13. Brookline 2.7 

14. Yonkers 2.1 

15. Berkeley 1.6 

(i) 

LrBRARTES 

1. White Plains 2.4 

2. Pasadena 1.6 

3. Colorado Springs 1.6 

4. San Diego 1.4 

5. East Orange 1.1 



(h) 

Maintenance (Repairs and 

Replacement) 

1. San Diego 12.1 

2. Pasadena 9.4 

3. Colorado Springs 8.7 

4. Newton 5.7 

5. Yonkers 5.4 

6. Berkeley 4.9 

7. Milton 4.6 

8. Springfield 4.2 

9. White Plains 4.2 

10. New Rochelle 3.6 

11. Madison 3.5 

12. East Orange 2.7 

13. Wellesley 2.2 

14. Brookline 2.1 

15. Montclair 9 

(7) 
Health 

1. White Plains 2.3 

2. Madison 8 

3. San Diego 7 

4. Montclair 6 

5. East Orange 4 



i84 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



(i) (Continued) 

6. Berkeley 1 

7. New Rochelle 3 

8. Montclair 1 

9. Yonkers 1 

10. Wellesley 

11. Madison 

12. Springfield 

13. Newton 

14. Brookline 

15. Milton 

(k) 
Transportation 

1. San Diego 1.6 

2. Pasadena 

3. Brookline 

4. Springfield 

5. New Rochelle 

6. Montclair 

7. East Orange 

8. White Plains 

9. Berkeley 

10. Yonkers 

11. Wellesley 

12. Colorado Springs 

13. Newton 

14. Madison 

15. Milton 



ij) (Continued) 

6. Brookline 4 

7. Yonkers 2 

8. New Rochelle 1 

9. WeUesley 

10. Springfield 

11. Pasadena 

12. Berkeley 

13. Colorado Springs 

14. Newton 

15. Milton 

(l) 
Miscellaneous 

1. New Rochelle 10.2 

2. Madison 4.8 

3. Pasadena 2.6 

4. Colorado Springs 1.7 

5. Brookhne 1.2 

6. San Diego 1.1 

7. Wellesley 5 

8. East Orange 4 

9. Montclair 1 

10. Berkeley 1 

11. Springfield 

12. White Plains 

13. Yonkers 

14. Newton 

15. Milton 



The reports of the Bureau of Education at Washington 
give authoritative information on many school questions 
although, as a rule, they are not so recent as to furnish 
a satisfactory basis of procedure. The following figures 
on the cost of free textbooks and stationery and supplies 
are taken from the reports of school superintendents for 
the school year 1911-1912 and included in Bulletin 
Number 36 issued by the Bureau in 1915. 



SCHOOL FINANCE 



i8s 



Cost per Pupil for Textbooks in Various Cities of the 

United States 



„. . „.. Elementary Schools 

Size of City Median Average 

Over 100,000 $0.74 

25,000-100,000 72 

10,000-25,000 80 

5,000-10,000 84 



High Schools 
Median Average 


$2.61 


$3.11 


2.46 


2.61 


1.78 


1.91 


2.40 


2.38 



$0.78 
.75 
.87 
.96 



Cost per Pupil for Stationery and Supplies Used in Instruction 
IN Various Cities of the United States 

„. f ^. Elementary Schools High Schools 

bize ot L.ity Median Average Median Average 

Over 100,000 $0.78 $0.83 $2.79 $2.92 

25,000-100,000 79 .82 1.88 2.32 

10,000-25,000 79 .91 1.61 1.68 

5,000-10,000 1.14 1.15 2.25 2.52 



Average Annual Cost per Pupil Textbooks and Supplies from 
1908-1915, Fourteen Pennsylvania Districts, All Grades 

Average Cost of Average Cost of 

City Textbooks Based on SuppHes Based on 

Average Attendance Average Attendance 

Allentown $0.83 $0.65 

Altoona .72 .73 

Chester 1.15 1.65 

Erie 1.06 1.02 

Harrisburg ." 1.25 2.14 

Johnstown 1.03 1.32 

Lancaster 1.08 .77 

McKeesport 1.00 1.44 

Newcastle 1.05 1.33 

Reading .80 .78 

Scranton .96 1.16 

Williamsport 1.13 1.20 

Wilkes-Barre 1.00 .97 

York 92 1.35 

Average fourteen cities 1.00 1.18 



i86 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Springfield, Massachusetts, Cost per Pupil, Average 
Enrollment, 1914 

Q.K^^le Teachers' -r„ , ^ Supplies and ^I'lZ^lF;^' Total Cost 

Schools Salaries ^^^^^ Equipment MSlanfous P^^ ^"P" 

Central High $72.48 4.42 10.23 3.66 ' 90.79 

High School of Com- 
merce 51.40 

Technical High 76.07 

Elementary 27.31 

Evening High 8.22 

Evening Elementary. 7.83 

Average for day 

schools 33.12 

Average for evening 

schools 7.97 

Kindergarten 26.12 

Evening school 

trades 11.46 ... 1.31 .68 13.45 

Cost of Miscellaneous Items per Pupil per Year 



3.81 


3.74 


2.12 


61.07 


1.84 


6.60 


3.36 


87.87 


.89 


2.03 


2.09 


32.32 


.78 


.46 


.78 


10.24 


.36 


.12 


.44 


8.75 


1.23 


2.74 


2.23 


39.32 


.51 


.24 


.56 


9.28 


• 


1.06 


.11 


27.29 



Altoona, Pa. Paterson, NJ. Montclair, N.J. 

Basis Basis Basis 

Item Total Average Average 

Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment 

General control $1.28 $1.59 $1.21 

Repairs 4.66 .42 3.40 

Census .05 

High School teachers' salary 38.09 39.47 74.25 

High School principal 1.85 1.72 4.52 

High School books 2.83 1.88 2.74 

High School supplies 1.34 .64 5.30 

High School janitors and firemen.. 6.86 2.70 8.04 

High School fuel 2.24 .88 2.50 

High School light and power 43 .82 4.70 

High School janitors' suppUes 21 .17 .42 

High School medical inspection ... .03 ... .95 

Elementary instruction 14.18 ... 35.86 

Elementary principals 1.96 8.87 4.50 

Elementary special supervision. . . .62 .07 5.66 



SCHOOL FINANCE 187 

Cost of Miscellaneous Items per Ptipil per Year (Continued) 

Attendance 22 ... .10 

Elementary textbooks 65 .54 1.01 

Elementary supplies 1.37 .49 2.99 

Elementary janitors 2.27 1.96 5.60 

Elementary fuel 54 .58 3.12 

Elementary light and power 35 .08 1.90 

Elementary janitors' supplies 22 ... .53 

Elementary medical inspection 10 .09 .88 

The results of a detailed study of fuel costs in Mont- 
clair, N.J., for the different school buildings is given in 
the following table: 

Fuel Costs of Schools of Montclair, 1914-1915 

No. 1000 Heating Cost Cost per Capita 

School Cu. Ft. Cost of Cost per per Average 

Heated Coal 1000 Cu. Ft. Sitting Attendance 

Cedar 286 653.50 2.29 1.80 1.98 

Maple 763.31 . . . 1.98 2.26 

Baldwin 538 846.03 1.60 1.85 2.23 

Grove 650 888.00 1.40 2.11 2.72 

Chestnut 542.84 ... 1.93 2.62 

Watchung 124 640.41 5.20 1.66 2.24 

Mt. Hebron 524 1264.20 2.40 2.57 3.32 

Heights 27 288.59 10.70 4.12 7.63 

Hillside 2308 3162.84 1.38 3.22 4.51 

Professor Bobbitt, of the University of Chicago, has 
worked out the cost of instruction in high schools in 
twenty-five cities in seven different states. The cost 
unit is the student hour, or, the instruction of one student 
for sixty minutes. The tabulation is given on the basis 
of one thousand student hours and shows the median 
cost and the middle 50 per cent, which may safely be 
considered the common practice. 



i88 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Comparative Cost of High School Subjects 



Subject Median ^j^dle 
-''J /o 



Shop work $93 $55-$131 

Latin 71 54_ gg 

Commercial 69 51- 82 

Modern languages 63 49- 82 

History 62 49- 83 

Domestic art 61 40- 80 

Science 60 53- 86 

Mathematics 59 47- yg 

EngHsh 51 42- 70 

Music 23 11- 46 



The report of the Superintendent of Schools of Topeka, 
Kansas, gives similar information in a slightly different 
form. 

Relative Cost of Instruction by Departments 1915 



c u- 4. T- M Tnstnirtinnal ^ost per Cost per No. 

Subject Enrollment ^"'^^g^t PupU per PupiJ Recitations 

Term Hour for $1 



English 1194 $4209 $3.52 3.91 cts. 25.6 

Mathematics 916 3725.50 4.08 4.54 " 22.1 

Latin 552 2332.50 4.22 4.69 " 21.4 

German 479 1814 3.72 4.14" 24.2 

History 818 3242.50 3.97 4.41 " 22*6 

Science 578 5782.50 4.47 4.96 " 20.2 

Household arts 396 1590.50 4.02 4.45 '' 22.5 

Business 592 2309.50 3.92 4.36 " 22*9 

Normal training 115 .480 4.18 4.65 " 21.5 

Music 89 310 3.48 3.86 " 26.6 

Freehand drawing 118 382 3.22 3.58 " 27.9 

Mechanical drawing. . . 211 870 4.13 4.6O " 21.7 

Woodwork 137 765 5.58 6.21 " 16.2 

Penmanship.. 148 240 1.62 1.79 " 55.8 

Physical training 121 450 3.72 4.13 " 24.2 



SCHOOL FINANCE 189 

It is not easy to secure figures relative to school costs 
which are strictly comparable, because of the varied 
methods of accounting in different cities. Up to a few 
years ago, there were almost as many systems of book- 
keeping and calculating costs in use as there were city 
school systems. About 1910, the United States Bureau 
of Census and the United States Bureau of Education 
agreed upon standard forms which have been adopted 
by many of our cities. As a result, much of the former 
confusion has been eliminated. Even when the same 
forms are in use, absolute uniformity does not exist. 
Rules cannot be made with sufficient definiteness to 
reduce human judgment to a common basis. Expendi- 
tures occur which may be charged legitimately to any 
one of several accounts. These variations, however, are 
minor and do not affect the broad general classifications. 



CHAPTER XIII 
PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 

Too often school authorities, in planning and locating 
buildings to meet the ever-increasing demands for addi- 
tional accommodations, do not formulate a policy based 
upon fundamental principles or continuity of action. 
They act upon vague impressions instead of making a 
systematic endeavor to learn the facts relative to present 
needs and probable future growth. The insistent de- 
mands of a group of selfishly interested parents may 
exercise an undue influence upon them, or the financial 
interests of certain citizens may weigh more heavily than 
the requirements of the school children. As a result of 
this lack of system, one district may show buildings 
crowded far beyond reasonable capacity or legal limits, 
while those in an adjacent section are only partially 
filled. Such a condition may be met by so fixing district 
limits that the required number of children are included 
within the specified boundaries, but this means of utilizing 
the half-empty buildings takes no account of the distance 
traveled by the children. 

Even when their welfare is the sole basis for action, to 
determine the location and proper size of a new building 
is no simple problem. The most careful program may 
be disarranged by a sudden change in the direction of the 
city's growth, but, provided the fundamental plan is 
sound, a more rapid or a slower development than was 

190 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 191 

contemplated is not a serious matter. Its only effect 
is to hasten or delay the building scheme, for to carry 
out a program covering a long series of years compels a 
choice of sites with respect to future as well as to present 
needs. It is entirely conceivable that a building well 
placed for the first ten years of its life may be in such a 
location that it is but partially useful for the next forty 
or fifty years. It is a poor policy which sacrifices future 
needs to temporary expediency. 

The modern business world furnishes models of fore- 
thought well worthy of imitation. Telephone officials, 
for example, locate their buildings and install the equip- 
ment only after making careful investigation not only of 
the number of probable patrons but also of the character 
and extent of the service likely to be needed. 

This study represents an attempt to forecast the 
growth of Montclair, N.J., for a series of years in order 
to determine the most advantageous sites for schools 
and, in a general way, the size of the buildings necessary 
to care for an increasing school population. Such facts 
are modified to a certain extent by the character of the 
schools already in existence, and the proximity of Mont- 
clair to New York City brings about conditions of growth 
which would not be duplicated in every particular in 
communities removed from urban influence. The same 
principles, however, would be equally valid whatever the 
location of the community studied, since it is increasingly 
true that the population of towns near large cities is 
affected by the growing desire on the part of city dwellers 
to escape the congested conditions of city life. The 
rapidity of this growth depends to a large extent upon 
the quality of train service and the character of real 



192 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

estate development. Low rents and large apartment 
houses tend to bring to a town a larger number of families 
than is the case when severe building restrictions and a 
predominance of one-family houses operate to increase 
rentals. Conditions in Montclair are such that only 
families of at least a moderate income can afford to pay 
the rents demanded. 

In this study it is assumed that with a long continued 
pressure of population out from New York City through 
New Jersey, Montclair, with its limited area, will become 
congested quite rapidly, and that the normal pressure 
will continually increase in strength. This limited area 
is a constraining condition on the future increase of 
population and is a governing factor in the population 
estimates. As the town becomes congested, the New 
York pressure will be felt in the towns beyond. It 
follows, then, that the population growth of New York 
must enter into the estimates of the growth of any town 
in this section of the country. The United States Census 
Reports show what the city growth has been in the past 
few decades. 



Growth of New York City in Population 

Population Growth 

1870 2,093,444 

617,198 

1880 2,710,642 

880,663 

1890 3,591,305 

1,359,814 

1900 4,951,119 

1,984,909 
1910 6,936,028 



Percentage 
Growth 



29.5 
32.5 
37.9 
40.1 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 193 

The general direction of this growth is shown by an anal- 
ysis of the above figures as given in the following table. 

New York City and Suburbs to 33-Mile Limit. — Percentage 
Distribution of Population and Growth 

Bronx, 
Westchester 
and 
Manhattan Rockland Long Island Richmond New Jersey- 
Total Total Total Total Total 
Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth 
% % % % % % % % % % 

1870 45 6.1 23.6 1.6 23.7 

36.1 3.4 31.8 1 27.7 

1880 42.9 5.5 25.5 1.4 24.7 

31.4 8.6 31.4 1.4 27.2 

1890 40.2 6.2 26.9 1.4 25.3 

30.1 12.2 30 1.1 26.6 
1900 37.3 7.9 27.8 1.4 25.6 

24.2 17 31.6 1 26.2 
1910 33.6 10.5 28.9 1.2 25.8 

For each decade since 1870 the New Jersey growth 
has maintained an almost uniform ratio in comparison 
with the total growth of the great city, and it may 
fairly be assumed that future conditions will not vary 
greatly from past records. New Jersey must certainly 
continue to obtain very large growths, with the develop- 
ment of the New York district. 

The next step is to ascertain the distribution in the 
various counties adjacent to New York and affected by 
its growth. 

Growth of New Jersey Counties Adjacent to New York 

Bergen Essex Hudson Passaic Union 

Total Total Total Total Total 

Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth Pop. Growth 

% % % % % % % % % % 

1880 5.3 37.1 36.7 12.2 8.7 

3 31.7 41.8 17.3 6.2 

1890 4.6 35.6 38.2 13.6 8 

8.4 33.1 35.7 15.9 6.9 

1900 5.8 34.8 37.4 14.4 7.6 

11.2 34.1 33.5 13.1 8.1 

1910 7.4 34.6 36.3 13.9 7.8 



194 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Here again the same constant ratio is manifest. Essex 
County, in which Montclair is located, has a percentage 
of the total increase expressed within the limits of 31.7 
per cent and 34.1 per cent. 

The population study is next narrowed to include a 
similar period for Montclair only. It is unfortunate 
that the figures for the 1915 population cannot be offi- 
cially checked until the 1920 United States Census is 
taken. They are, however, reasonably correct since 
they are based upon an actual count of the families in 
three wards and are verified by the figures of the State 
Census for 1915. 

Montclair Population and Growth 

Population Growth P^Cent 

1890 8,656 

3097 35.8 

1895 11,753 

2209 18.8 

1900 13,962 

2408 17.2 

1905 16,370 

5180 31.6 

1910 21,550 

4181 19.4 

1915 25,731 

On the basis of past growth in the entire district of 
New York, Essex County, and Montclair, an estimate is 
made of the future development in Montclair to 1940. 
This must be conservative or the town will find the 
building program in excess of its ability to pay the cost. 
The census figures show that of the totul New York 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 195 

district growth about 27 per cent is in New Jersey, and 
of this more than 30 per cent is in Essex County. Since 
1890 the five-year periods show Montclair increases 
varying from 17 per cent to 35 per cent. After making 
a field study of conditions in the several wards and 
interpreting previous rates of development in terms of 
the results of this study, the following assumption seems 
reasonable. 

Montclair Assumed Population Increase to 1940 

Population Growth ^q.^^^^ 

1915 25,731 

4500 17.5 

1920 30,231 

5099 16.9 

1925 35,330 

5500 15.6 

1930 40,830 

5350 13.1 

1935 46,180 

4850 10.5 

1940 51,030 

This population estimate was next distributed by wards, 
the number of families in typical blocks being actually 
counted and due consideration being given to the type of 
dwelling and the number of families expected to live in 
blocks made up of dwellings of this character. 



Ward Population and 


Number Families, 


1940 




Ward I 


Ward n 


Ward in 


Ward IV 


WardV 


Total 


Population. . 12,000 
Families. . . . 2,550 


6,200 
1,350 


7,830 
1,590 


13,200 
2,750 


11,800 
2,460 


51,030 

10,700 



196 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 
School Attendance — All Ages 

City Pop- ScrolP^^Cent Pop. s'c'hool ^^^ Cent 

Akron, Ohio 42,728 7,211 16.9 69,067 10,852 15.7 

Auburn, N.Y 30,345 4,400 14.5 34,668 5,653 16.3 

Binghamton, N.Y. .. 39,647 6,246 15.7 48,443 7,991 16.5 

Canton, Ohio. 30,667 5,593 18.2 50,217 7,674 15.3 

Chester, Pa 33,988 5,564 16.4 38,537 5,979 15.5 

Davenport, la 35,254 6,442 18.3 43,028 7,530 17.5 

Elizabeth, N.J 52,130 8,625 16.5 73,409 12,774 17.4 

EvansviUe, Ind 59,007 9,757 16.5 69,647 10,923 15.7 

Ft. Wayne, Ind 45,115 8,356 18.5 63,933 11,040 17.3 

Hartford, Conn 79,850 13,063 16.4 98,915 18,951 19.2 

Knoxville, Tenn 32,637 5,200 15.9 36,346 5,936 16.3 

Lincohi, Neb 40,169 9,440 23.5 43,973 8,759 19.9 

Montgomery, Ala. .. . 30,346 4,241 14 38,136 5,473 14.4 

New Haven, Conn. .. . 108,027 19,285 17.8 133,605 26,370 19.7 

Portland, Me 50,145 8,155 16.3 58,571 10,375 17.7 

Relation School Population 6 to 14 Years to Total 
Population, 1910 

City Total Population ^"^To^ f4^5^;^^^°'^ Per Cent 

Akron, Ohio 69,067 8,383 12.1 

Auburn, N.Y 34,668 3,813 11 

Binghamton, N.Y 48,443 5,741 11.8 

Canton, Ohio 50,217 6,035 12 

Chester, Pa 38,537 4,954 12.8 

Davenport, la 43,028 5,942 13.8 

Elizabeth, N.J 73,409 10,597 14.4 

EvansviUe, Ind 69,647 9,167 13.2 

Ft. Wayne, Ind 63,933 8,915 13.9 

Hartford, Conn 98,915 13,957 14 

KnoxviUe, Tenn 36,346 4,259 11.7 

Lincohi, Neb 43,973 5,531 12.6 

Montgomery, Ala 38,136 4,090 10.7 

New Haven, Conn 133,605 20,466 15.3 

Portland, Me 58,571 7,271 12.3 

14.5 

Average 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 197 

Two sets of statistics relating to the past and present 
number of pupils in Montclair are available. One is 
provided by the United States Census and the other is 
the official school statistics for the town. 

The United States Census, which is, as a rule, carefully 
supervised and is reasonably accurate for such a town as 
Montclair, provides statistics for 1910 giving the distribu- 
tion of population within the following age limits. Under 
6 years, 6 to 9 years inclusive, 10 to 14 years inclusive, 15 
to 17 years inclusive, and 18 to 20 years inclusive, and 
also the percentage of the population from each of these 
classes attending school. 

Assuming that the 6 to 14 year class corresponds to 
the elementary and junior high school age limits, and 
that the class 15-20 years corresponds closely to the 
senior high school age limits, we have a basis for estimating 
the relationship between population and school attendance 
for the two groups. 

The first of the two preceding tables of selected cities 
shows the relation at 1900 and at 1910 between total 
pupils of all ages and total population, and the second 
table shows the relation between total population and 
population from 6 to 14 years inclusive. 

Corresponding statistics for Montclair are as follows: 

Montclair, 1910 

Population 21,550 

Attending school, all ages 3,758 

Percentage, all ages 17.4 

Total population, 6 to 14 2,795 

Percentage in school 13 



igS METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

These data would lead us to estimate that approxi- 
mately 17.5 per cent of the total population are enrolled 
as pupils, and of this number 75 per cent are of the 6 to 
14 years inclusive, and 25 per cent are of the ages over 
fourteen years. 

The United States Census statistics are checked by 
the official records of the Montclair School Department, 
giving a similar relation between population and pupils. 



Per Cent 
Date Population Average No. Pupils 

Pupils to Pop. 

1905 16,370 2600 15.9 

1910 21,550 3350 15.6 

1915 25,731 4000 15.6 



Relation Between Enrolled Pupils, Grades Kindergarten 

TO Eighth Inclusive, and Total Enrolled Pupils 

-p. . Total Grades Per Cent 

^^^^ Enrolled Kd. to 8th of Total 

1905 3186 

1906 ; 3259 

1907 3346 

1908 3582 

1909 3730 

1910 3812 

1911 3889 

1912 3905 

1913 4102 

1914 4277 

1915 4499 3758 83.6 



2801 


88 


2873 


88.2 


2942 


87.9 


3079 


86 


3172 


85 


3197 


84 


3243 


83.4 


3246 


83.1 


3386 


82.5 


3544 


83 



It is clear that these two sets of statistics do not repre- 
sent exactly the same thing. The United States Census 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 199 

figures include pupils in attendance at private schools as 
well as in the public schools. The subdivisions into the 
two age groups, 6 to 14 years and 15 to 20 years do not 
correspond exactly to the elementary and secondary 
school. A relatively large discrepancy exists between 
the 15 to 20 year old group and the high school enroll- 
ment. In one case it is 25 per cent of the total number 
of pupils who were 17.5 per cent of the total population, 
and in the other case it is 15 per cent of the total pupils 
who were 16 per cent of the total population. The 
comparison of the 6 to 14 year old group with the kinder- 
garten to eighth grade shows less discrepancy. In the 
first the pupils are 13 per cent of the total population, 
and in the latter 13.4 per cent. This variation might be 
different if in the first case pupils not over 14 years of 
age but beyond the eighth grade were deducted, and if 
in the other case kindergarten pupils under six years of 
age were added. If these two corrections balanced, the 
figures would in both cases approximate 13 per cent. 
In the town as a whole the increase in public school 
pupils would seem to have coincided closely with the 
increase in population. 

There is one possible comparison arising from the fact 
that the Mount Hebron district includes nearly all of 
Ward I and has retained the same limits since 1910. 
The relation between the average enrollment of pupils, 
kindergarten to eighth grade, and population in this 
district has been as follows: 



Date 


Population 


Pupils 


Per Cent Pupils 


1910 

1915 


2582 

3261 


441 
491 


17.1 
15 



200 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Totals of 760 and 1150 were deducted from the 1910 
and 1915 population figures for the portion of Ward I in 
another district. 

The relation between population and pupils in May, 
1915, in all five wards is as follows: 



Ward Population 



Per Cent 
Total 
Total Pupils 

Pupils Population 



1 4,411 

II 4,904 

III 5,330 

IV 6,156 

V 4,930 



770 


17.4 


653 


13.3 


736 


13.8 


855 


13.9 


1040 


21.1 



Totals 25,731 4054 15.7 

The corresponding figures for kindergarten to eighth 
grade pupils are as follows: 

Ward Population Pupils Per Cent Pupils 

1 4,411 

II 4,904 

III 5,330 

IV 6,156 

V 4,930 

Totals 25,731 3354 13 

From these statistics it is clear that the relation between 
the total population and pupils is quite definite and may 
be used with confidence in making a forecast for the 
future. Therefore it may be assumed that in 1940, 
with a population of 51,030, the average enrollment will 
be 16.5 per cent of this population, or approximately 
8400 pupils. 



579 


13.1 


526 


10.7 


616 


11.6 


751 


12.2 


882 


17.9 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 201 

Applied to wards we have the following distribution: 



Ward Pupils 



Per Cent 
of Population 



1 2160 18 

II 870 14 

III 1190 15.2 

IV 1910 14.5 

V 2270 19.2 

Totals 8400 16.5 



To determine the type of school necessary to care for 
future increases of pupils, it is next desirable to approxi- 
mate the percentage subdivision of the total enrollment 
into the three principal groups of pupils in the system, 
i.e., the kindergarten to the sixth grade, the junior high 
school (grades seven to nine), and the senior high school 
(grades ten to twelve). 

The available figures in Montclair go back only as far 
as 1912, but the figures for the last four years are suffi- 
ciently uniform to warrant the supposition that the 
probable future division will follow the same tendency. 





Sept. 1912 Sept. 1913 Sept. 1914 Sept. 
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent No. Per Cent No. 


1915 
Per Cent 


Kindergarten to VI. 
VII, VIII, and IX.. 
X, XI, and XII.... 


2412 66.2 2445 65.4 2740 67.8 2857 
745 20.5 791 21.2 803 19.9 866 
484 13.3 500 13.4 497 12.3 552 


66.9 
20.2 
12.9 


Totals 


3641 3736 4040 4275 





Based upon these statistics it is estimated that the 
future subdivisions will be as follows: 

Kindergarten to Grade VI 66.5% 

Junior High School 20.5 

Senior High School 13 



202 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

When these percentages are applied to previous esti- 
mates, the distribution by five year periods appears as 
in the table below. 



^^^^ Population Elementary Junior H igh Senior High 

1920 30,231 

1925 35,330 

1930 40,830 

1935 46,180 

1940 51^030 



3260 


1005 


635 


3810 


1176 


744 


4460 


1370 


870 


5050 


1560 


990 


5630 


1732 


1098 



These totals are distributed by wards for 1940 as 
follows : 



Ward Total 



Elementary Junior High Senior High 



395 
123 
145 



1 2160 1221 544 

" 870 596 151 

III 1190 778 267 

JV 1910 1480 260 m 

263 

1096 



V 2270 1507 500 



Totals 8400 5582 1722 



In forecasting the distribution of pupils by school 
districts, definite boundaries must be assumed. These 
should, in general, coincide closely with a theoretical fine 
equi-distant from adjacent schools, although deviation is 
occasionally advisable in order to meet local sociological 
conditions and also to conform to the existing capacity 
of the school buildings. In a small city the distribution 
of high school pupils is not a material consideration, 
since, as a rule, pupils will come from the entire city to 
a single high school. Several districts are likely to be 
grouped to provide a sufiicient number of pupils to 



PLANNING FOR FUTURE NEEDS 203 

facilitate the administration of a junior high school, but 
the building plans for elementary schools must consider 
future growth as well as present enrollment, or small 
children will be compelled to walk unreasonable distances. 
The following table shows the 1940 needs in each of the 
Montclair districts. 

Districts Families Kd. to VI Junior High 

Mount Hebron 1,892 917 408 

Watchung 1,042 527 233 

Edgemont 944 479 204 

Rand 540 476 54 

Grove 1,183 573 221 

Baldwin 716 403 41 

Glenfield 1,298 740 70 

Nishuane 1,128 536 206 

Hillside 1,957 931 285 

Totals 10,700 5582 1722 

Reference to the map on page 42 will make clear the 
proposed plan of caring for this number of children. 
Mount Hebron will contain both the elementary and 
junior high groups, but Watchung, Edgemont, Rand, 
and Grove will send their junior high school pupils to a 
building located near the center of their combined districts. 
At present these pupils are accommodated in the senior 
high school building. Hillside cares for its own pupils 
as well as for those from Baldwin, Glenfield, and Nishuane. 
When its capacity has been reached, provision must be 
made for the southern section of the town by an addition 
to Nishuane, which will then become a combined ele- 
mentary and junior school. 

This building program, which for the sake of illustration 
has been apphed to Montclair, shows how it is possible 



204 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

to give due regard to future needs, and by this means 
to avoid the needless expense arising from incorrect 
location of schools and the serious difhculties that come 
from planning a structure to meet present demands 
without provision for future unavoidable additions. 



CHAPTER XIV 
STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 

To consider a survey completed with the tabulation of 
collected statistics is to fail entirely to grasp its real 
purpose; the only justification for undertaking it at all 
is the ultimate correction of the abuses and the strengthen- 
ing of the weak places it reveals. To this end the second 
step is so to interpret the data as to gain the information 
necessary for formulating constructive policies. Follow- 
ing so logically on the first, this point seems hardly to 
need emphasizing, but it is scarcely possible to overstate 
the viciousness of the results produced by the all-too- 
common practice of drawing hasty conclusions from 
insufficient or inaccurate data. So long as school author- 
ities accept casual estimates and opinions as valid evidence, 
so long will the public school follow in the traditional paths 
instead of blazing a trail leading to the truth. 

For really effective presentation, the facts revealed 
by the local survey should be shown graphically, although 
it is permissible to leave them in the tabular form in 
which they first appear. The construction of a statistical 
table is presumably a simple matter, but, in reality, to 
have completed this phase of the work in a scientific 
manner is to have overcome more than half of the diffi- 
culty, and it is just this elation at having surmounted a 
genuine obstacle which has, until very recently, allowed 
statisticians to rest at this point, content to regard the 
table itself as the goal of their effort. 

205 



2o6 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

In beginning a tabulation, the first consideration is 
whether the data shall be grouped in one table or in 
several. The single table is compact and all data are 
brought into close proximity, thereby enabling the 
reader to note resemblances and differences easily; 
but often a very real drawback occurs in that, if the 
table is too large, great difficulty is experienced in follow- 
ing lines and columns. This may be partly obviated by 
skill in ruling and spacing. A typical illustration is 
found in the practice of wide spacing after every fifth 
or sixth line. This method of grouping is preferable to 
the practice of drawing horizontal lines, which militate 
against the attractive appearance of the table. 

In the construction of tables the following suggestions 
may be helpful: 

1. Decide exactly what each table is meant to show. 
It is generally advisable to make each a unit, although 
it is entirely permissible to introduce two dissimilar 
topics if a definite relation exists between them. Any 
attempt, for instance, to show in the same table as two 
distinct items the length of teacher service and the size 
of classes, is to suggest dissimilar ideas and consequently 
to weaken the effectiveness of the argument. On the 
other hand, if it is desired to trace the effect of class size 
upon cost of instruction, both items may well be included. 

2. Decide whether the table shall show absolute 
values, percentages, or both. This decision depends 
upon what comparisons are to be made. For example, 
if large numbers are to be compared with small numbers,' 
an effective method is to reduce both to number in a 
thousand. A comparison of the persistence of attendance 
in a small school system with the figures from an entire 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 207 

state is very difficult unless such a device is employed. 
If, however, it is found necessary to use such methods, it 
is advisable to note the absolute values also, in order that 
other studies may be easily made from the same table. 

3. The number of headings is important. The more 
minute the subdivisions the greater the accuracy and 
ease in interpretation; but multiplicity of headings 
prevents emphasis upon the main facts. When com- 
plicated tables are used, summary tables can often be 
employed to advantage. These may be reduced to some 
common basis, — such as number in a thousand or million 
— which is easy to comprehend and remember. 

4. The title of the table should be complete and self- 
explanatory. The reader is not likely to take the trouble 
to hunt up footnotes or turn pages to ascertain the mean- 
ing of the numbers presented. Tabulation is intended 
to make facts emphatic, and the more vividly they stand 
out from the page the more certainly they serve their 
purpose. A common error is to use a title of too narrow 
scope to cover all the data. Avoid a title that has a 
double meaning. In all headings indicate the unit em- 
ployed. Nothing is more exasperating than to attempt 
to interpret a table and find it almost impossible to 
ascertain whether the numbers employed represent 
percentage or absolute numbers. 

5. Roman numerals in many instances stand out more 
prominently than Arabic. 

6. Follow some systematic arrangement of data, espe- 
cially in a long table. As an example, let cost of high 
schools in a large number of cities be shown. The 
arrangement may be alphabetical, according to geographi- 
cal location, to the relative cost, or to the population of 



2o8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

the cities given. A reader wishing to compare some 
particular city with those given in the table can easily 
insert the name and data in the proper relative position 
if he is familiar with the general scheme of construction. 
Printing the name of this city in capitals is a simple 
device for making it stand out prominently in the list. 

7. It is necessary to make a rough trial draft of the pro- 
jected table before entering any data. This gives proper 
spacing, width of columns, and effective arrangement. 
Place numbers to be compared in close proximity and 
preferably in a vertical column rather than in horizontal 
lines. 

8. Rulings indicate relative importance of subdivisions. 
The principal groups should be separated by either double 
or heavy lines. Exceptional items may be marked with 
a star referring to a footnote, but too many exceptions 
destroy the value of the table. 

9. Too much care can hardly be taken to make all 
items accurate. The discovery of a few errors throws 
suspicion upon the whole table; some regular system of 
checks is therefore necessary. Verify every item by 
comparing it with the original to eliminate errors in 
copying. A certain large publishing house finds it 
necessary to require that each subscription blank be 
checked by six clerks in order to avoid possible mistakes. 
Add first in a vertical and then in a horizontal direction 
and compare the summated totals. All percentages 
should be added to see that the total equals 100 per cent, 
save in those instances where only a part of the percentages 
is given. Averages should be multiplied by the number 
of items and the product compared with the total. Mul- 
tiplications and divisions should be performed twice, 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 209 

• 

preferably by two persons working independently of each 
other. For one person simply to repeat the operation 
will not sufhce, as any mistake tends to recur. Com- 
mercial houses have found this tendency so pronounced 
that they place little reliance upon the plan. 

10. Most readers are too indolent to analyze tables 
for themselves, hence there should be a written analysis 
which indicates clearly the desired conclusions. This 
practice is advisable even when the statement is little 
more than a repetition of the facts shown in the table. 
The analysis should be entirely frank and point out any 
possible errors and limitations in the conclusions drawn. 

11. Never assume that because the table seems per- 
fectly clear to its maker it will be equally clear to the 
reader. The work devoted to the preparation of a table 
gives an understanding of its principles impossible to 
one who approaches it with no previous knowledge. 
This comprehension can be furnished only by the most 
definite explanations. 

As has already been indicated, careful workers in the 
educational field are not content to rest their case upon 
the presentation of facts in tabular form. Experience 
has shown that without the help of an accompanying 
statement, incorrect conclusions are often drawn or that 
the difficulties of interpretation are so great as to prevent 
the casual reader from giving them the attention neces- 
sary to understand their meaning. This presentation of 
conclusions does not imply any coercive influence upon 
the mind of the reader. If the tables appear in full they 
are incontrovertible evidence of good faith, and they 
also furnish the facts upon which to base other investiga- 
tions. The second function is of extreme importance. 



2IO METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Many a promising line of investigation has had to be 
abandoned because accurate, original data, safeguarded 
by careful interpretative statements on which to base 
the study, have been lacking. We may expect real 
progress in education only when students in this field 
can find ready for their use an abundance of facts, se- 
cured under normal conditions and properly tabulated. 

In the interpretation of tables and in the formulation 
of conclusions, certain statistical terms of a technical 
nature have come into general use. Some of them seem 
so familiar as to present no difficulties; others less fre- 
quently employed have very technical meanings and 
would be misunderstood save by those who have special- 
ized in statistical work. Lack of care in determining 
the significance of nomenclature is responsible for some 
of the mistaken conclusions occasionally encountered in 
current educational periodicals. This can be made clear 
by taking as a simple illustration the well known term 
''average." A conclusion respecting financial conditions 
in a given community based upon average wealth would 
be reasonably accurate provided the property were more 
or less evenly distributed, but if the community were 
made up of one millionaire and other inhabitants in dire 
poverty, while the average wealth might be the same as 
in the- first instance, any conclusions based upon this 
average would be grossly inaccurate. In this case it is 
plain that some other basis of comparison than the 
average wealth of the two communities is necessary. 

Experience has shown that the following list of terms 
constitutes the minimum number essential to an accurate 
interpretation of the various conditions which may be 
encountered ; 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 211 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 


Mean or Average. 
Frequency. 
Weighted Mean. 
Median. 


5. 


Mode. 


6. 


Average Deviation. 


7. 


Standard Deviation. 


8. 


Index of Correlation. 


9. 


Probable Error. 


10. 
11. 


Quartile. 

Middle 50 per cent. 



1. The Average. 

This is the term most commonly employed and is the 
one most readily understood by the man on the street. 
It is easily computed by taking the sum of the various 
magnitudes and dividing by their number. If five 
papers are marked respectively 5, 10, 60, 70, 80, the 
average is 45. 

2. Frequency. 

This is the term used to indicate the number of in- 
dividuals or units in a given group. This may be illus- 
trated by a table showing the number of children who 
attain varying scores in solving problems in arithmetic. 

Number Problems 

Number solved 0123 4 5 6 7 89 10 11 12 

Frequency 1 1 3 6 13 14 19 14 12 5 4 2 1 

In this table frequency varies from one to nineteen, 
i.e., from one child solving no problems to nineteen 
solving six problems, and then decreases to one child 
solving twelve problems. 



212 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

3. Weighted Mean. 

The weighted mean which approximates the average 
is a simpHfication used when the number of cases involved 
is large and it is desirable to avoid the trouble of making 
a laborious computation. Suppose we have 500 sticks 
varying in length from 22 inches to 56 inches. It is 
quite a task to find the average of the lengths of those 
sticks. The problem is simplified by arranging them in 
groups with specified length limits and multiplying the 
length represented by each group by the number of 
sticks in that group. For example, we might arrange 
them in groups differing in length by two inches and 
determine the frequency of each. Assuming nine groups 
we might have the following table: 



Length of Sticks 












2 24 26 28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


9 35 57 88 


105 


84 


69 


38 


15 



Length 22 

Frequency 9 

Bear in mind that this does not mean that we have, 
for instance, 57 sticks 26 inches long. It means that 
there are in this group 57 sticks varying in length from 
25 to 27 inches, but since the differences in length within 
the group tend to balance one another, for purposes of 
computation all sticks in the group are assumed to be of 
the same length. 

The weighted mean or average is found by dividing 
the sum of the products referred to above by the sum of 
the frequencies (500) . In the above example the weighted 
mean is 30.2 inches. Obviously the narrower the limits 
of each group the more nearly will the weighted mean be 
to the true average. 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 213 

4. Median. 

The simplest case of a median value is that of the 
middlemost measure in an odd number of measures 
arranged in order of size. For example, the ages of a 
certain group of five persons are 8-11-14-16-20 years, and 
the median age is 14 years. In practice the method 
usually followed is to arrange the measures in order of 
size and select the middlemost term. If the number of 
measures in the series is even, the median must be 
interpolated between the two middle terms. 

In the series 5, 10, 60, 70, 80, the median is 60, since two 
measures lie below this measure and two above. Two 
distinct advantages appear in the use of the median: 
(1) Its simplicity; in a short series there is no necessity 
for arranging the measures in order, since the median 
may be determined by inspection, thus avoiding all 
computations. (2) It avoids a conclusion unduly affected 
by excessively small measures or by those that are ex- 
cessively high. 

At times the average and the median coincide, but in 
other instances they differ radically. In the series given 
above, the median is 60 but the average is 45, due to the 
effect of the small measures 5 and 10. If the series should 
read 5, 10, 50, 60, 70, 80, the median would fall between 
50 and 60 with three terms above and three below the 
median point. 

In a simple series, when the sum of the frequencies n is 

odd, the number of the median term is ascertained by the 

n-\- 1 

use of the formula When the sum of the series 

2 

is even, it is between the two terms located by counting 
m — terms from either extremity. 



214 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

For a more detailed discussion, see Rugg's Statistical 
Methods Applied to Education, pp. 109-114. 

When the frequency of each term is one, the median is 
readily ascertained by simply counting in the requisite 
number of terms and noting the corresponding measure. 
When the frequencies are greater than unity, a careful 
computation is necessary. The simplest form of a table 
of this character is one in which the measures are sep- 
arated by unity. This is illustrated by the results of an 
arithmetical test in which the number of problems solved 
by different groups of children is shown. In this case the 
problem is definitely solved or not solved, hence the meas- 
ures are separated by unit intervals. Frequencies are 
grouped, making it impossible to determine by inspection 
the number of problems solved by the middlemost child. 

Number of Problems Solved and Frequencies 

Number solved 0123456789 10 11 Total 
Frequency.... 15 32 70 86 71 61 55 40 14 6 2 1 453 

Since the number of children, or the sum of the fre- 
quencies, is 453, an odd number, the median term is 

w + 1 
found by using the formula; i.e., the median term 

is found to be the 227th term. This is located in the 
group of 71 pupils able to solve four problems, since 
15 -F 32+ 70 + 86 equals 203. Clearly then, the de- 
sired term lies 24 terms beyond the group of 86 children 
solving three problems. Strictly speaking, such a series 
as this is discrete, i.e., progress is by intervals of one 
problem, but for the purpose of this computation it must 
be considered as continuous. If the table had related to 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 215 

abilities of children in penmanship or Enghsh composition, 
it would have been strictly continuous, with abilities of 
children in a lower group shading off into the abilities 
of children in the higher group. Assuming the series to 
be continuous, it is evident that the 71 children are not 
at the exact point represented by four problems, but 
some are half way down toward the 86 group while 
others are half way up toward the 61 group. The child 
half way between the 86 and 71 group is the child able 
to solve 3.5 problems and the child half way between the 
71 group and the 61 group is the child able to solve 4.5 
problems. The space in the series covered by the 71 
group is therefore, 1 (4.5 — 3.5). To find the problem 
abihty of the 227th child it is necessary to add to 3.5, the 
lower limit of the 71 group, a value indicated by 24/71 
of the space (one) included in the 71 group. This is 
approximately .3, which, added to 3.5, gives 3.S as the 
required median or the achievement of the 227th child. 

While the computation for the median in a series with 
unit intervals is comparatively simple, certain difficulties 
arise when the intervals are irregular, though the principle 
remains exactly the same. 

The following results from an application of the Hillegas 
Composition Test serve to illustrate the computation 
under more difficult conditions. 





Hillegas Standard Score 






Score 

Frequency 


1.83 2.60 3.69 

3 79 66 30 


4.74 
3 


Total 
181 



For the sake of clarity the mid-points between the 
successive scores as well as the limits of the distribution 
for each score are shown graphically. 



2i6 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

In this drawing, the values .91, 2.21, etc., are the 
mid-points between the successive scores. The values 

.91 2.21 3.14 4.21 5.29 

0. I 1.83 I 2.60 I 3.69 I 4.74 I 5.83 



.91 1.30 .93 1.07 1.08 

1.30, .93, 1.07, etc., indicate the spread of each group 
represented in the table. Turning now to the table, 

n 4- 1 
the desired term is ■, or the 91st term. The sum of 

2 

the first two frequencies is 82, and hence the median 
must be the attainment of the 9th child in the 66 group. 
To find the attainment of this child it is necessary to 
add to the lower value of the 66 group 9/66 of the value 
covered by this group, i.e., 9/66 X .93 equals .13. Hence 
the median is 2.21 + .13 or 2.34. 

5. Mode. 

The mode is simply the measurement corresponding 
to the greatest frequency. In the discussion under 
weighted mean appears a table showing the arrangement 
of sticks in two-inch groups. The mode is 30, since 
here is found the largest number of sticks appearing in 
any group. In some instances such a measure as this 
is necessary to understand the facts. Suppose a church 
congregation of 100 contributed $1000 to some cause. 
The assumption that an average contribution of $10 was 
made would lead to the conclusion that all members 
contributed generously. A totally different conclusion 
would be reached if a distribution of the collection 
showed that one person gave $1000 while the remaining 
ninety-nine gave nothing. In this case the larger, or 
the modal, group contributed nothing. In an irregular 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 217 

series two or more distinct modes may appear, or the 
distribution may be such that no distinct mode is 
apparent. 

In a speUing test given to thirty-five children the 
following record was obtained: 

Number of Pupils Number of Errors 

2 

3 1 
6 2 

2 3 

4 4 

3 5 
6 6 

1 7 
8 

2 9 

6 10 or more 

Here are three distinct modal groups, viz., the six 
pupils making respectively two errors, six errors, and 
ten or more. 

6. Average Deviation. 

As the term implies, deviation indicates the amount 
by which the individual records depart from the average, 
median, or mode, as the case may be. Those below the 
average, median, or mode will be minus deviations, and 
those above will be plus deviations. The average devia- 
tion when the frequency is unity is determined by adding 
together both the plus and the minus deviations, regard- 
less of sign, and dividing by the number of cases. This 
is expressed by the formula 

. ^ di+ d2 + ds. . .dn 

A.D. = 

n 



2i8 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

When the frequencies are greater than unity each devia- 
tion is multiphed by its frequency and the sum is then 
found. 

The table relating to length of sticks given in the 
discussion under weighted mean shows the following 
deviations from the mode which is thirty inches. 

Length of Sticks 

Length 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 

Frequency 9 35 57 88 105 84 69 38 15 

Deviation -8 -6 -4 -2 +2 +4 +6 +8 

The average deviation 3.16 + is found by multiplying 
these deviations by their respective frequencies and 
dividing the sum of the product 1583 by the number of 
sticks, which is 500. A similar procedure would be fol- 
lowed in finding the average deviation from the median, 
which in this case happens to be the same, or from the 
average. 

As a practical illustration, the average deviation shown 
by a class in working examples in fundamental operations 
in arithmetic might be used. Evidently a class with a 
small average deviation is graded more closely than one 
with a greater average deviation. Determination of 
this value, then, furnishes direct evidence of the extent 
to which uniformity of ability in this particular phase of 
arithmetical work exists. 

7. Standard Deviation. 

This is a value commonly employed by statisticians, 
but the computation is longer and more tedious than 
that for average deviation. Derivation of the formula 
has no place in a discussion of this character, and its 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 219 

validity is here assumed. To find the standard deviation 
when the frequency is unity, square the deviations, 
divide the sum of these squares by the number of cases, 
and take the square root of the quotient. The operation 
is expressed by the formula 



SD - y/ ^'' + ^2^ . . . . d„ 



If the frequencies are different from unity and denoted by 
/i /2 /s . . . • fn, then the formula becomes 



■ ' ' /1+/2 /„ 

It is to be noticed that the standard deviation is con- 
cerned merely with the size and not with the sign of the 
deviation. 

8. Coefficient of Correlation. 

This is a term frequently employed in statistical dis- 
cussions. It means that between two series or groups 
there exists some causal relation. The simple fact that 
two series vary together does not necessarily mean that 
correlation exists. Although the cotton crop of the 
South and the maple sugar crop of Vermont might increase 
in the same year, it is presumable that, owing to the 
different climatic conditions required, there is no causal 
relation between the two crops, and that the simultaneous 
increase is purely a matter of coincidence. 

If, however, correlation does exist between any two 
groups, such as a and b, then whatever change occurs in 
a has some fixed relationship to the change in b. 

Correlation is of two kinds: direct, when the two 
series vary in the same direction; inverse, when they 



220 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

vary in opposite directions. If the price of grain and 
the price of milk both advance together, there is probably 
a direct correlation between the prices of the two. When 
there is a shortage of wheat the price rises as the supply 
diminishes: this is inverse correlation between supply 
and price. The correlation of a great variety of facts 
may be investigated; e.g.^ the relation between the 
length and breadth of leaves, between tall fathers and 
the height of their sons; between ability in mathematics 
and ability in English; between knowledge of technical 
grammar and facility in the use of English. It is possible 
to show correlation by using a frequency graph, but this 
is unsatisfactory because it does not reveal the degree to 
which correlation exists. 

To make clear the degree of correlation it becomes 
necessary to compute what is technically known as the 
coefhcient of correlation. This is the numerical index of 
the relation between the subject and the relative, as the 
two variables are called. The subject is the variable 
selected as the standard, and the relative is the variable 
compared with it. 

We shall see later that +1 means perfect direct cor- 
relation, implies that no relationship exists between 
the two variables, and — 1 indicates perfect inverse cor- 
relation. Several methods of computing the index of 
correlation are employed, but the one devised by Karl 
Pearson is probably best known. The derivation of 
this formula is a problem in abstract mathematics, so 
complicated that it has no place in a discussion of this 
character. Students desiring an elaboration of the 
principles involved should consult such books as Karl 
Pearson's The Grammar of Science, King's Elements of 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 221 

Statistical Method, Bowley's Elements of Statistics and 
Thorndike's Introduction to the Theory of Mental and 
Social Measurements. For the purposes of this book we 
take the formula for granted. Its application is not 
difficult, though the computations are somewhat tedious. 
The coefficient of correlation is given by the formula 

r = — 7= — 

when r equals coefficient of correlation, 

X equals deviation from average in the first series, 
y equals deviation from average in the second series, 
2 equals algebraic sum of the series. 
To make clear the meaning of the various symbols we 
employ the illustration used by Dr. George Strayer.^ 
He assumes a group of seven individuals with the follow- 
ing record of problems solved and words spelled correctly. 
In these problems the record in arithmetic is the subject 
and the spelling record is the variable. 

Individuals Number Problems Number Words 

Solved Spelled Correctly 

A 1 2 

B 2 4 

C 3 6 

D 4 8 

E 5 - 10 

F 6 12 

G 7 14 

It is evident that as individuals increase in efficiency 
in one field there is a corresponding increase in the other. 
To find the coefficient of correlation construct the following 
table. 

^ Quoted by special permission from How to Teach, Stray er and Norsworthy. 
Copyright by The Macmillan Company. 



222 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



. Individ- 

uals Arithmetic X X^ SpeUing F Y^ X-Y 

A 1 -3 9 2 -6 36 18 

B 2 -2 4 4 -4 16 8 

C 3-11 6-2 4 2 

D 4 8 

E 5+1 1 10+2 4 2 

F 6+2 4 12+4 16 8 

G 7 +3 9 14 +6 36 18 

7 )28 28 7 )56 112 56 

Av. = 4 2.v2 = 28 Av. =8 2/ = 112 i:{x-y) = +56 

(Vzx^) (Vz/) (V28) (V112) 

The result + 1 shows perfect direct correlation. 

The same illustration may be employed to show another 
type of correlation. 

Individ- 
uals Arithmetic X X^ Spelling Y Y^ X-Y 

A 1 -3 9 14 +6 36 -18 

B 2 -2 4 12 +4 16 -8 

C 3 -1 1 10 +2 4 -2 

D 4 8 

E 5+1 1 6 -2 4 -2 

F 6 +2 4 4 -4 16 -8 

G 7 +3 9 2 -6 36 -18 

7 )28 2x2 ^ 28 7 )56 S>'2 ^ 112 i:{x-y)= -56 

Av. =4 Av. = 8 

Xx.y _ - 56 _ - "56 _ 

~ (V2^(V23^) (V28) (VT12) 56 

The value —1 indicates perfect inverse correlation. 
In the two illustrations cited above the facts deter- 
mined by the use of the formulae were equally evident 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 223 

by inspection. As a rule, however, the relationship is 
not so apparent. In the following table a computation 
is more necessary. 

Individ- „ „ „. „ t/9 x-y 

uals Arithmetic X X^ Spelling Y Y^ " + 

A 2 -2 4 12 +4 16 -8 +6 

B 1 -3 9 8 0+4 

C 4 2-6 36 0+4 

D 5 +1 1 14 +6 36 -6 

E 3 -1 1 4 -4 16 

F 7 +3 9 6 -2 4 

G 6 +2 4 10 +2 4 

7)28 7)56_ -14 +14 

Av. = 4 Sx2 = 28 Av. = 8 2/ == 112 Zx-y = 

'Sx.y 
r = — ==^ = — _ Q 

(Vs^ (Vs/) (V28) (V112 

The resulting shows that no correlation exists between the 
arithmetical abihty of the group and the abihty in spelhng. 
In the next type also, inspection does not reveal cor- 
relation. 

Individ- 
uals Arithmetic X X'^ Spelling Y Y^ x-y 

A 1 -3 9 4 -4 16 +12 

B 2 -2 4 2 -6 36 +12 

C 3-1 1 8 +0 

D 4 6-2 4 +0 

E 5 +1 1 12 +4 16 +4 

F 6 +2 4 10 +2 4 +4 

G 7 +3 9 14 +6 36 +18 

• 7)28 2x2 = 28 7 )56 23^2 = 112 Zx-y = 50 

Av. =4 Av. = 8 



224 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Since the relationship in the achievements of school chil- 
dren as shown by careful investigators varies from + .20 to 
+ .60, the decimal .89 is highly significant. In general it 
may be assumed that any coefficient above + .50 warrants 
the conclusion that plus correlation exists to a significant 
degree, while a coefficient below + .15 or + -20 indicates 
a degree of correlation which is practically negligible. 

Relation of Ages of Husband and Wife^ 





Husband's 






Wife's 










Age 


X 


X2 


Age 


Y 


F2 


x-y 


1... 


. 22 


-8 


64 


18 


-8 


64 


+64 


2... 


. 24 


-6 


36 


20 


-6 


36 


+36 


3... 


. 26 


-4 


16 


20 


-6 


36 


+24 


4... 


. 26 


-4 


16 


24 


-2 


4 


+8 


5... 


. 27 


-3 


9 


22 


-4 


16 


+12 


6... 


. 27 


-3 


9 


24 


-2 


4 


+6 


7... 


. 28 


-2 


4 


27 


+1 


1 


-2 


8... 


. 28 


-2 


4 


24 


-2 


4 


+4 


9... 


. 29 


-1 


1 


21 


-5 


25 


+5 


10.. 


. 30 








25 


-1 


1 





n.. 


. 30 








29 


+3 


9 





12.. 


. 30 








32 


+6 


36 





13.. 


. 31 


+1 


1 


27 


+1 


1 


+1 


14.. 


. 32 


+2 


4 


27 


+1 


1 


+2 


15.. 


. 33 


+3 


9 


30 


+4 


16 


+12 


16.. 


. 34 


+4 


16 


27 


+1 


1 


+4 


17.. 


. 35 


+5 


25 


30 


+4 


16 


+20 


18. 


, . 35 


+5 


25 


31 


+5 


25 


+25 


19. 


. . 36 


+6 


36 


30 


+4 


16 


+24 


20. 


. . 37 


+7 


49 


32 


+6 


36 


+42 




Av. = 30 


2x2 = 324 


Av. = : 


26 


2/ = 348 


2.T-y = +291 




r = — 


llx.y 




291 




4- .86 



(Vzx^) (Vzy^) (VsU) (V348) 

^ Elements of Statistical Method, Willford I. King, The Macmillan Company, 
New York. 



STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 225 

When the two series are of considerable length and 
wholly lacking in regularity, the extent of correlation 
cannot be determined even approximately by inspection. 
This is illustrated by the preceding table. 

One of the practical applications of correlation is its 
use in ascertaining the relative ability of pupils in two 
fields such as algebra and geometry. 

Relation of Ability in Algebra and Geometry^ 

Geometry X " Y^ Algebra " F Y^ 'x^ 

1 80 +4 16 60 -14 196-56 

2 68 -8 64 73 -1 1 8 

3 65 -11 121 80 +6 36 -66 

4 96 +20 400 80 +6 36 120 

5 59 -17 289 62 -12 144 204 

6 75 -1 1 65 -9 81 9 

7 90 +14 196 75 +1 1 14 

8 86 +10 100 90 +16 256 160 

9 52 -24 576 63 -11 121 264 

10 70 -6 36 55 -19 361 114 

11 63 -13 169 54 -20 400 260 

12 85 +9 81 95+21 441 189 

13 93 +17 289 90 +16 256 272 

14 87 +11 121 70-4 16 -44 

15 82 +6 36 68 -6 36-36 

16 79 +3 9 75 +1 1 3 

17 78 +2 4 86 +12 144 24 

18 79 +3 9 75 +1 1 3 

19 82 +6 36 60 -14 196 -84 

20 70 -6 36 82 +8 64-48 

21 52 -24 576 86 +12 144 -288 

22 94 +18 324 85 +11 121 198 

23 72 -4 16 73 -1 1 4 

24 53 -23 529 62 -12 144 276 

25 94^ +18 ^24^ 85 +11 121 198 

25 )1904 4'358" 25 )1849 3319 1698 

76 2.v2 74 2/ ^x-y 

^ How to Teach, Strayer and Norsworthy. The Macmillan Company. 



226 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



9. Probable error. 

The curve representing the distribution of frequency 
in a normal, i.e., a symmetrical group, is known as a 
probability curve or curve of error. Since the average, 
or median, is the most probable value, any deviation 
from the average can be called and is in a sense an error. 
The probable error, therefore, is the limit on either side 
to the probable deviation from the average or median. 
Thus the probable error in a series is that deviation from 
the average or median on either side, within which exactly 
half of the items lie. In other words, it defines the limits 
of the middle fifty per cent and establishes the quartiles. 
It is expressed in terms of the units of value and shows 
how widely distributed a series of measures is. We 
might illustrate this further by saying that if we had 
the mean of the heights of eight year old boys, then the 
chances are exactly even that the height of any eight year 
old boy would not deviate further from the mean than 
the probable error, or P. E., as it is usually written. 

The use of P. E. in statistics is to 
indicate the closeness of the grouping 
about the median. When P. E. is 
small, a grouping of the above type 
is indicated. When P. E. is rela- 
tively larger, a grouping more like 
the following results. An approxima- 
tion to P. E., when the distribution 
is assumed to be normal, is ob- 
tained (1) by making an array of 
the items (2) by marking by / that 
item above which 25 per cent of the items lie, and by 
t' that item below which 25 per cent of the items lie. 





STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION 227 

Then P. E. = i {t-t') 

P. E. may be expressed in terms of standard deviation 
by the equation — 

P. E. - .6745^ 
where s represents the standard deviation. 

The method employed in determining the decimal 
.6745 represents a problem in higher mathematics, and is 
here taken for granted. 

10. Quartile. 

The median has been defined as the middlemost term 
in a series. In a similar way the quartiles are the items 
dividing the series into fourths. The first quartile in a 
series with an odd number of terms is located by using 

n -\- 1 . . . (3n + 1) 

the formula : the third quartile is the 

4 ^ 4 

item. Whenever interpolation within a group is neces- 
sary, the method used for determining the median is 
employed. 

11. Middle Fifty Per Cent. 

This expression practically defines itself and is used to 
indicate the measures located between the first and fourth 
quartiles. It calls attention to the relative size of the 
group located about the median point. 

This discussion of statistical terms is necessarily limited 
by lack of space, but those items have been included 
which are believed to be most essential in the interpreta- 
tion of school conditions. For a discussion of details or 
further application of the principles involved, the reader 
is referred to other books dealing with the question at 
greater length. 



CHAPTER XV 
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 

The collection of facts relative to the school system 
and their presentation in tabular form are, as we have 
already noted, only contributory to the real end of the 
survey. Tables of statistics must function in the creation 
of a strong public sentiment which shall make remedial 
measures possible, but the average citizen is too indifferent 
and too absorbed in his own private affairs to spend 
much effort in the interpretation of a mass of statistical 
material. The facts must be forced on his attention, 
and the more vivid and striking the presentation the 
better. Newspapers act on this principle by giving 
salient news items headline prominence, and in statistical 
work graphical representation serves the same purpose. 

Many a man who would not take the trouble to read 
and interpret a column of figures showing the decrease in 
school retardation through a series of years will com- 
prehend the change at a glance if, instead of reading 
figures, he is asked to look at the comparative lengths of 
the heavy black lines which represent them. When the 
comparative freight service in the United States for 
1899 and 1911 was represented by the lengths of two 
freight trains, a definite impression was made upon even 
the most casual observer. If school superintendents 
show similar ingenuity in educating their constituents, 
there will be no lack of a well-informed public. It should 
be mentioned, however, by way of caution, that graphical 

228 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 229 

representation is often inadequate, and that the failure 
to understand some of its fundamental principles some- 
times causes beginners, however well-intentioned, to give 
erroneous impressions to the reader. 

A graph is of Httle practical use when it requires more 
time and effort to understand it than to obtain a similar 
idea from the tables themselves. Its sole purpose is to 
simpHfy the idea to be conveyed and thus make it easy 
of comprehension. Unless this can be done, it is far 
better not to attempt to use it. As a means of acquiring 
skill the study of the graphs employed by an expert is 
one of the best possible methods. A very clear presenta- 
tion of this whole question is found in Willard C. Brinton's 
Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts, published by the 
Engineering Magazine Company of New York. 

Graphical representation follows certain established 
principles which have been evolved from experience, 
but these rules are in the nature of general suggestions, 
allowing almost endless variations in the device em- 
ployed. They are: 

1. Select a title for the graph which cannot be mis- 
interpreted. 

2. Give the complete table on which the chart is based, 
so that table and chart may mutually reinforce each 
other. 

3. Give a full description of the graph, using illustra- 
tions, if necessary, to make the meaning clear. 

4. Assume complete ignorance on the part of the one 
who is to read the chart. 

5. Do not depend upon the graph alone to make clear 
the desired comparison. Indicate on the chart the exact 
figures for compared areas or heights of columns. 



230 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

6. The general arrangement of the chart should be 
from left to right. 

7. The base, or zero, line should be heavier than the 
coordinates. 

8. Horizontal scale figures should be placed at the 
bottom of the chart and repeated, if necessary, at the 
top. 

9. In general it is assumed that all charts extend to 
the base, or zero, line. If space is lacking, a wavy Hne 
indicates that the field is broken off and does not reach 
zero. 

10. In constructing charts for printing, use only 
enough coordinate lines to guide the eye in reading. 
Quarter-inch squares are small enough for the ordinary 
chart. 

11. Charts involving time should have light lines at 
the left and right edges. 

12. Avoid the use of areas and volumes to show quan- 
tities, since their relation to each other is that of the 
squares and cubes of their dimensions. Such charts are 
almost certain to be misinterpreted. 

13. In making colored charts, green is employed to 
represent desirable qualities and red for undesirable 
qualities. 

14. Squared paper with red and green lines is as 
readily photographed as paper lined with india ink. 
Ordinary ink will not show satisfactorily in a photograph. 

Squared or cross-section paper laid off in millimeters 
is almost essential for graphs. It may be purchased of 
any supply house. Frequency curves plotted on cross- 
section paper have been used by engineers for many 
years to represent data relating to laws of physics, and 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 231 

the same method of presenting facts has been utihzed 
with equal success in other fields. 

When the frequencies obtained in any investigation are 
tabulated, the existence of a definite law in their distribu- 
tion is, as a rule, immediately apparent. A large number 
of leaves picked purely at random and arranged in order 
of their lengths will show that comparatively few are 
short or long, but that the majority are of intermediate 
length. It will further be observed that near the ex- 
tremes the lengths change rapidly, while near the inter- 
mediate point the lengths are practically constant. The 
same general result will be found in the realm of pure 
chance. If three dice are thrown 387 times and the 
number of spots counted, the results will give a table 
similar to the following: 

Frequency Table Showing Results or Throwing Dice 

No. of Spots No. Times Occurring 

4 2 

5 4 

6 12 

7 30 

8. . 36 

9 44 

10 56 

11 68 

12 40 

13 38 

14 28 

15 14 

16 7 

17 5 

18 3 



232 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Dr. Whipple's test of rote memory span for digits 
gives a similar distribution when applied to 21 eighth 
grade pupils. 

Rote Memory Span for Digits 

No. Digits Reproduced No. Pupils 
4 4 

6 ; 5 

8 7 

10 4 

12 1 



In this test the select character of the group accounts 
for a record with no pupils making a lower score. 

Extensive studies of marks given by teachers show the 
same general tendency, and instances might be multiplied 
indefinitely to prove that in nature, in the field of chance, 
and in the mental world the large majority of items 
are grouped about the mode, while as the distance from 
the mode increases the items diminish rapidly. When 
tables of this type are plotted on cross-section paper the 
result is a bell-shaped form which is known as the proba- 
bihty curve, the curve of error, Gauss' Curve, and the 
normal frequency curve. 

Y 





O O 

Typical Curves of Normal Distribution 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 233 

Including a large number of separate items in the 
table makes it clearly impracticable to locate each item 
on the curve. This necessitates separating the data 
into classes with arbitrary dividing lines and treating 
each group as a whole. 

Strictly speaking, the resultant graph of the usual 
frequency distribution is not a smooth curve, but rather 
a polygon. If a large number of items were measured, 
such as the heights of a group of boys, and the class 
intervals were made narrower and narrower, the steps 
would decrease in size and the polygon would gradually 
approach a true curve which is typical of the field as a 
whole. 

In actual experience, a perfectly symmetrical curve is 
the exception, because at points of equal deviation above 
and below the mode, frequencies are unequal. Circum- 
stances will determine whether the curve is skewed in 
one direction or the other. Supposing A to be the highest 
obtainable rank, the teacher of a class of a low order of 
ability may expect to find the curve representing the 
distribution of marks skewed to the right. If the class 
is one of superior ability, high marks should predominate, 
with a resultant skewing of the curve to the left. A 
perfectly symmetrical histogram represents the ideal, 
and any variation from this symmetry demands explana- 
tion of the particular condition. 

The simplest form of graphical presentation is made 
by drawing two coordinate axes at right angles to each 
other. Upon the horizontal, or X, axis, mark convenient 
intervals corresponding to the units of measurement of 
the series to be plotted. Upon the vertical, or F, axis, 
mark intervals corresponding to the frequency of the 



234 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



series. Any point may then be located by giving its 
abscissa, or distance from the Y axis, and its ordinate, or 
distance from the X axis. 

As an illustration of this method of plotting, assume 
the following percentage of non-promotion for eight 
grades of a school system. 



Grade 1 8 per cent 

" II 20 

" III 12 

"IV 6 



Grade V 19 per cent 

" VI 12 

" VII 11 

" VIII 10 



The table would be expressed graphically as follows: 



Per cent 
25 



20 
15 

10 
5 





2 







1 


r\ 










/ 


\ 




/ 


\ 










/ 


^ 


\ 


/ 


\ 


12 


1 


10 


8 


f 




\ 


I 































Grades i 



ii iii iv v vi 
Chart of Non-Promotion 



VII VIII 



A table giving the distribution of penmanship scores 
can be shown to advantage by employing the heights of 
columns. The measure appears on the X axis and the 
frequency is shown by column height. 

A similar distribution for boys and girls separately may 
be shown on a single chart by using a white or a black 
column according to the sex. 

It is sometimes desirable to express a number of different 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 



235 



Distribution or Penmanship Scores 



No. Pupils 



Quality of Handwriting 



67. 

222. 

506. 

777. 

614. 

144. 

28., 

10. , 



20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 



No. 

Pupils 

800 




20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 
Chart of Penmanship Scores 

factors on a single chart, so that the varying elements of 
the table can be brought together and the resemblances 
and differences emphasized. This purpose is accom- 
plished by utilizing vertical or horizontal bands in which 
similar facts are indicated by identical marking. As 



236 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



an illustration of the principle, assume the percentage 
of population, in Los Angeles and Detroit, engaged in 
different industries as shown in the following table. 



Los Angeles 

Manufacturing 31 per cent 

Trade 21 

Personal service 15 

Transportation 10 

Clerical 9 

Professional 9 

All others. 5 



Detroit 


53 


per cent 


13 




10 




8 




10 




5 




1 





100 per cent 100 per cent 

The table offers a wide choice among the means for 
designating the various trades, such as alternate blocks 
of black and white, simple cross-hatching, double cross- 
hatching, etc. If only a single handmade chart is needed, 
color may be employed effectively. When this is done 
care should be taken to use colors which give a pleasing 
effect, since jarring colors detract from the value of the 
chart. 

The following illustration shows the use of the alternate 
black and white segments: 



Los 
Angeles 



Detroit 



53% 



15% 10% 9% 9% 5% 



13% 10% 8% 10% h%\% 



Percentage of Total Population in Los Angeles and 
Detroit Engaged in Dieeerent Occupations 

When the black spaces are large enough to permit it the 
figures which they represent may be written in the center 
of the space, a white area being left for this purpose. In 
any event the figures should always appear somewhere, 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 



237 



to enable the reader to interpret the chart easily and to 
compare the graph with the table. 

In some instances the detached columns are a more 
effective method of representing facts for comparison. 

24 



23.3 



22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

A 

2 





18.3 





13.7 




Sept. 1912 Sept. 1913 Sept. 1914 Sept. 1915 

Percentage or Retardation in City A for Four Years 

A change in the percentage of retardation for the school 
system is a case in point. In this chart the height of the 
column shows the percentage of retardation for the year 
indicated at the base. 



238 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Another scheme, which is always effective, is the use 
of the circle, in which the size of the sectors corresponds 
to the magnitude appearing in the table. A typical il- 
lustration is one giving the reasons why children leave 
school. The graph may be based either upon absolute 
figures or upon percentage. 

Withdrawal from School 

Number Percentage 

Left City 1073 62 

Work 270 16 

Health 187 11 

Remain at home 117 6 

Enter Parochial School 68 4 

All other reasons 35 1 

When the discussion involves the question of money, an 
added vividness results by using a dollar in place of the 
plain circle. 




How THE City Spends Its Dollar 

Schools 391 

Recreation 025 

Libraries 009 

Streets 082 

Interest 193 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 239 

City government 084 

Police 066 

Fire 052 

Health 083 

Charity 008 

Miscellaneous 007 




Within recent years there has been a heavy increase 
in city taxes. PoHticians have interested themselves in 
the public demand for water, sewers, paving, and other 
necessities of modern city life, and as a consequence the 
tax rate has mounted alarmingly. With the call for 
retrenchment the schools are the first to be endangered, 
since their political influence is far less than that of some 
other agencies, but the peril is more apparent than real, 
because at heart the American public is deeply concerned 
in the welfare of the children and needs only to be aroused 
to give adequate support to the school department. 

Incorrect conclusions can often be drawn from a study 
of the increase in school costs. The public is demanding 
more and more of its schools, and smaller classes, better 
accommodations, and experienced teachers with profes- 
sional training are some of the reasons why school costs 
mount more rapidly than the increased enrollment seems 
to warrant. Only by comparing the increase in school 



240 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

costs over a series of years with the increase in cost of 
other municipal departments can the real facts be shown. 

Comparison or Tax Rate for Schools in One City with 
Total Tax Rate 

Year School Tax Total Tax 

1905-06 45 $2.76 

1906-07 48 2.88 

1907-08 45 2.69 

1908-09 45 2.63 

1909-10 48 2.70 

1910-11 74 3.06 

1911-12 58 3.26 

1912-13 58 2.97 

1913-14 69 3.08 

This table expressed in graphic form shows whether 
an increasing tax rate may be attributed to large school 



3.50 




2.00 

1.50 

1.00 

.50 



SchooLMaintenance 




01 



1905-G6 1907-08 1909-10 1911-12 1913-14 
1906-07 1908-09 1910-11 1912-13 



Tax Rate for Schools Compared with Total Tax Rate 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 241 

expenditures or whether the cause for this increase is to 
be sought in some other city department. 

One of the serious problems in school administration 
is the overlapping of grades. An ideal grading scheme 
would place children of equal ability in the same group, 
but such an arrangement is practically impossible since 
no child is uniformly efficient in all the different subjects 
of the curriculum. The actual compromise policy in 
use determines the grouping of pupils by their ability in 
the majority of subjects. To ascertain in what subjects 
the individual child excels, it becomes necessary to study 

Results of Test for Overlapping 

Score 8th Grade 4th Grade 

20 5 

19 2 

18 2 

17 3 

16 4 1 

15 6 1 

14 7 1 

13.. 8 1 

12 9 1 

11 11 2 

10 11 4 

9 10 5 

8 10 12 

7 6 14 

6 4 19 

5 1 14 

4 1 13 

3 6 

2 3 

1 1 

1 



242 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

him critically, and as a preliminary step the school ad- 
ministrator must know the extent to which the trial 

Problems 
solved 











Gra 


de ^ 


III 






Gr 


idel 


V 














20 






































19 




































18 




































17 






































16 
















1 






Cross hatched block shows 
pupils of Grade IV who 
did better than Median of 
Grade VIII. 




15 
















1 






11 


















1 






















13 
















1 






















12 


















1 






















11 






3 


ledi: 


in o; 


■ Grj 


de^ 


III 


w. 




















10 






































9 






































8 




































7 


















-Me( 


lian- 


of-G 


rade 


tyr 










6 













^ 


:^^ 


— 


— 











5 
















1 






















4 


Cross hatched block shows 
pupils of Grade VIII who 


























3 


fell belovr3Iedian of Grade 
IV. 






















2 






































1 













































































QU 


Fre- 
enci 


_es 


11 


10 


9 


8 
G 


7 
ra 


6 
de 


5 


4 

"11 


3 
[I 


2 


1 


1 


2 


3 
( 


4 
5r 


5 
ad 


G 
e 


7 8 
IV 


910 


1112 


13 


14 


1516 


17 lb 


19 20 



Chart Showing Overlapping of Grades 

Number of problems solved in same time by 100 pupils of 
Grades VIII and IV. 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 



243 



groups of pupils overlap. This overlapping of groups is 
far more excessive than is commonly supposed, as may be 
determined by a simple test. Assume the same number 
of problems given to 100 children in the 8th grade and 
to 100 children in the 4th grade. If the same length of 
time be allowed each group for the solution of the prob- 
lems the characteristic results shown in the accompanying 
table and chart may be obtained. 

The median attainment of grade VIII is approximately 
eleven problems, and of grade IV six problems. Clearly, 
then, so far as this single test is concerned, all pupils in 
the eighth grade whose record is lower than six problems 
show an arithmetical ability poorer than the ability of 
the fourth grade pupils who are above this median, and 
are more in need of instruction than the younger children. 
All pupils in the fourth grade whose attainment is above 
eleven problems are better than the eighth grade pupils 
falling below this median. The extent of this overlap- 
ping is much clearer when shown by a chart than a table. 

For some readers this overlapping is more apparent 
in a chart which represents actual pupils. 



1 2 


3 


m/A 


y///m. 


'mm, 


'mm> 


wm 


'///m 


» 


» 


m 


m, 


m 


m 


m 


^ 


w 


p 


m 


HW 


■■ 


WM 


iW 


WW 


PW 


Wi 


WM 


fi 


W 


p 


p 


w 


m 


m 


m 


tf 


# 


m 




i 


Wi 


WW 


Wist 


iii^ 


iWt 


m 


#W 


^^ 


W 


m 


m 


m 


% 








fi 






Wf 


♦ # 


m 


0*» 


»♦ 


m 


IftI 


m 


'^ 


\ 


^ 


\ 




















^^ 


# 


M 




flw 


* 




















1001 -.i 


r. II 


J3 1 


H 1 


19 4 


14 6 


12 10 


5 10 


4 11 


2 11 


1 9 


1 8 


1 7 


1 6 


1 4 


3 


02 


2 


5 



Ranges in which are f oun d only IV grade children. ^^ Ranges in which are found 
only VIII grade children. k^///A Ranges in which are found children of both IV and VIII 
grades (overlapping). |\ = IV grade child. /I\= VIII grade child. Extent of overlapping 
shown by individual figures in each group. 



A chart of the above type, showing actual pupils, is 
particularly effective in presenting this fact to an audience. 



244 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

The color-spot chart appears less frequently than its 
value warrants. It is chiefly important as a medium for 
conveying a general impression of existing conditions. 
Let us suppose that it is desirable to represent the com- 
parative length of service of teachers in two school sys- 
tems. In making such a chart select a certain color, for 
example red, for one system, and another color, blue, 
for the second. Represent the number of teachers in 
each case by small circles of the selected color. The 
extent to which one color predominates over the other 
gives the desired impression. In the following repre- 
sentation white circles and black spots are used in place 
of colored surfaces. 



1 Year 
O O O O 

O O O O 
O O O O O 
• • • • 

• • • 


2 Years 
O O O O O 
O O O O O 

^ A A A 


3 Years 

O O O O O 

O O O 

A A A A 


4 Years 

O O O O 

O O O 

^ A A 


5 Years ' 
O O O O 
O O O 


Over 5 Years 
O O O 

• • • • 

^ A A A 


• • • 


• • • • 

• • 


• • • • 

• • 


• • • 
• • • • 


• • • • 

• • 



Length or Service or Teachers System A and B 

System A represented by white circle 
System B represented by black spot 



A variation of the color-spot chart appears in the use 
of a wall map with bead-headed pins of different colors 
to indicate the different facts. The number of pupils of 
each grade in a school district may be vividly shown in 
this way, the exact location of each child in the district 
being indicated by a pin at the spot where the house- 
number appears on the map. The combination of 
flexibility and permanency in such a scheme makes it a 



GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 



245 



valuable aid in the study of such changing problems as 
that of a shifting school population and the means of 
meeting the resultant variation in the demands on the 
school department. 

In recent years studies of acceleration and retardation 
have occupied an increasingly important place in super- 
intendents' reports. The totals for these studies are 
usually left in tabular form, and therefore they have usu- 



8000 



8000 




Years 2 1 
Accelerated 



2 3 

Retarded 



Retaedation and Acceleration 

Number pupils accelerated 2 years 500 

1 year 2000 

" " normal 8000 

" " retarded 1 year „ 4000 

" " 2 years 2000 

" 3 " 800 

" " " 4 " or more 200 



246 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 



H 
w 

H 
o 



o 

< 

O 
H 
CO 



o 
o 

C/2 



^ 



t^ rfi VO lO 

(TJ vd cx5 o 



fT) 00 On "* 
LO O O 00 
Thi "^ '^ CN 



lO ^o 



CO On 



• •^ O '^ 



ON <^ 



O 





CN 




NO 
1— 1 


^— 1 


NO 
•I— 1 




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LO 


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O 

LO 




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to 


00 


O 


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NO 




GO 

i-H 


ID 


lO 


O 


1—1 




o 


NO 

ro 


00 

1—1 




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OO 
1—1 


00 


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00 




O 


ro 


o 




r^i 


rvi 




a\ 


O 





o 
a 

■u 



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> ^ 



> 



ally failed to impress the reader 
with their tremendous importance. 
Contrast the two methods of rep- 
resentation indicated on the pages 
244 and 245. 

In giving such tests as those 
that have been developed by Stone 
and bv Courtis, it becomes im- 
portant to show the medians for 
the different grades and the per- 
centage of each class making the 
various scores. 

In the chart on page 247 the col- 
umns show the percentage of pu- 
pils attaining the respective scores. 
For example, 15 of the 453 fifth 
grade pupils, or 3.3 per cent, made 
a score of zero; while 32 pupils, or 
7 per cent, made a score of one. 
The vertical dotted lines show 
the median score for each of the 
grades. This type of chart is an 
excellent method of showing grade 
overlapping. 

While the typical charts appear- 
ing in this chapter may prove sug- 
gestive to those attempting for the 
first time to utilize this form of 
expression, it is not assumed that 
they will fit all cases. Practically 
every situation demands a type of 
illustration adapted to it, and sue- 



No. Pupils 
20 



V VI Vlt VIII Medians 



15 



10 



15 



^ 
Score 



20 



15 



10 




Score 



15 



10 



Score 



15 



10 







1 



1 



1 



0.51 



0.7 1 



.^j 



15 



12 



G 7 



6 7 



8 9 



IG 



8 9 




8 9 



10 



^ 



10 



E- 



10 



10 



11 



11 



11 



ai 



12 13 



0.5. 



12 13 



in 



12 13 



12 



11 15 



14 15 



11 15 



Grade V 



IG 17 



Grade VI 



16 17 



Grade VH 



U.7 



16 17 



Grade VIII 



Score 1 2 3 4j 5 G 7i 8 9 10 ill 12 13 14 15 16 17 
Medians 3.7 6^4 slc 10.5 

Scores in Stone Reasoning Tests Shown Graphically 

The height of the columns shows the percentage of pupils obtaining the 
indicated score. Medians are represented by dotted lines. 



248 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

cess in finding one depends upon the originality of the 
person making the study. Much help is available in 
the published reports of various surveys, which present 
striking methods of conveying different classes of facts to 
the mind of the reader. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SURVEY OUTLINE 

As a basis for the determination of the facts relative 
to any school system, the following list of questions and 
topics is suggested. They follow closely the material 
presented in the book, beginning with the second chapter 
which deals with the general conditions in the schools. 

Chapter II. General Conditions 

1. Map of city, locating transportation lines and 
school buildings. Are children compelled to travel an 
unreasonable distance? 

2. Character of population, revealed by birthplace. 

3. Relation between school population and total 
population, expressed in per cents. 

4. Per cent of pupils within compulsory age limits 
actually in school. 

Chapter III. Organization and Administration 

1. Is the superintendent the actual as well as the 
nominal head of the school system? 

2. Is the business department under the direction of 
an assistant superintendent? 

3. Does the Board of Education leave details to the 
superintendent and devote its attention to broad questions 
of fundamental policy? 

249 



250 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

4. Does the organization of the school department 
locate responsibility definitely and secure an expeditious 
handling of details? 

5. Size of Board of Education and manner of selection. 

6. Is the authority for small expenditures vested in 
the executive officers and properly safeguarded? 

7. Is unity of aim characteristic of the system? 

Chapter IV. Supervisory and Teaching Staff 

1. Is leadership of supervisors apparent? 

2. Are supervisors free from clerical details? 

3. Is a reasonable ratio between the number of super- 
visors and the number of pupils and teachers maintained? 

4. What is the ratio between the number of men and 
women employed? 

5. Character of training of supervisors, principals, 
and teachers. 

6. What is the source of teacher supply? 

7. Relation of the number of local teachers to all 
others. 

8. Percentage of teachers of varying terms of service. 

Chapter V. Salaries 

1. Average and median salary in elementary and high 
school positions. 

2. Variation in salaries of men and women. 

3. Allowance in salary for different causes of absence. 

4. Average salary for janitorial service. 

5. Salary of teachers in comparison with the wage of 
other city employees. 

6. Salary increment for increased efficiency. 



SURVEY OUTLINE 251 

Chapter VI. Pupils 

1. Relation between census enumeration and school 
attendance. 

2. Percentage of pupils of different ages in school 
attendance. 

3. Distribution of pupils in different grades. 

4. Percentage relation between each age and total 
enrollment. 

5. Percentage of beginners completing grades VIII 
and XII. 

6. Percentage of school attendance. 

7. Distribution of attendance by days. 

8. Age and grade and age and progress classification. 

9. Degree of acceleration and retardation. 

10. Causes of retardation. 

11. Percentage of non-promotion. 

12. Failure by grades and subjects in elementary 
schools. 

13. Subject failure in high schools. 

14. Size of classes in elementary and high school. 

15. Size of classes in different high school subjects. 

16. Number of weekly teaching periods in high school. 

Chapter VII. Efficiency of Instruction 

1. Character of tests employed. 

2. Determine distribution of pupils in each grade 
according to quality of writing. 

3. What is the median rating obtained in penman- 
ship by grades? 

4. Spelling attainment, by grades, Ayres Scale. 



252 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

5. Spelling record, by grades, ''One Hundred De- 
mons." 

6. Percentage correct, by grades, Buckingham Spell- 
ing Test. 

7. Comparison of results with Courtis Arithmetic 
Tests, series A. 

8. Comparison of median scores in arithmetic with 
Courtis Standards, series B. 

9. Comparison of median arithmetic scores with 
standards in Stone reasoning tests. 

10. Composition results compared with Rice standards. 

11. Reproduction story for grades III and IV. 

12. Application of Hillegas Scale standards in English. 

13. Use of Harvard-Newton Scale in English composi- 
tion. 

14. Relative attainment with Kelly Reading test. 

15. Check Kelly test by use of Starch's speed and 
comprehension test. 

16. Verify conclusions with Courtis reading test. 



Chapter VIII. Course of Study and Time Schedule 

1. Are the fundamental aims indicated in the course 
of study in harmony with those generally accepted? 

2. Percentage of total time, by grades, devoted to 
reading? 

3. Is supplementary reading abundant and varied? 

4. What is the source of words selected for spelling? 

5. Amount of time devoted to the subject? 

6. Time allowance for penmanship? 

7. Proportion of total time devoted to composition 
and grammar? 



SURVEY OUTLINE 253 

8. Percentage of time devoted to history and 
geography? 

9. To what extent is the problem method of teaching 
followed? 

10. Amount of time devoted to industrial arts? 

11. What are the provisions for adequate physical 
training? 

12. What amount of home study is required? 

Chapter IX. The School as a Social Center 

1. What is the policy respecting the use of school 
buildings? 

2. Number of centers opened in comparison with 
population? 

3. Average attendance in evening schools and cost per 
pupil hour? 

4. What is the number of evening sessions and percent 
of attendance? 

5. What organizations utilize the building? For what 
purposes? Aggregate attendance? 

6. What fees are imposed on such organizations? 

7. Average attendance in summer school and per 
cent of attendance? 

8. What organized social work is carried on during the 
school year in foreign sections of the city? 

Chapter X. Buildings 

1. Total score for each building in the city? 

2. What particular features show low scores? 

3. What is the building cost for each type of con- 
struction per classroom? Per pupil? Per cubic foot? 



254 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Chapter XI. School Hygiene 

1. What percentage of the total enrollment show 
physical defects of various kinds? 

2. What is the ratio of physicians, nurses, and dentists 
to enrollment? 

3. What other specialists are employed? 

4. What provisions are made for atypical children? 

5. What is the cost per pupil for each group? 

6. Do the school buildings conform to standard hy- 
gienic requirements? 

Chapter XII. School Finance 

1. What is the school expenditure per $1000 of 
wealth? 

2. What is the real wealth behind each dollar spent 
for school maintenance? 

3. What is the school tax in mills for school 
maintenance? 

4. What is the population per capita cost for 
schools? 

5. What is the cost for each 1 per cent of the 
children in the population? 

6. What per cent of the total city maintenance cost 
is devoted to schools? 

7. Distribution of the total city maintenance costs 
among the different departments. 

8. Comparison of total city maintenance costs with 
expenditures for new buildings. 

9. Distribution of annual school cost within the 
school department. 



SURVEY OUTLINE 255 

10. Distribution of school maintenance costs between 
elementary schools and high schools. 

11. Expenditure per child for different departments 
within the school system*. 

12. Cost per pupil for books and suppHes in the ele- 
mentary schools and high schools. 

13. Cost per pupil per annum, selected items. 

14. Comparative cost of high school subjects. 

Chapter XIII. Planning for the Future 

L Percentage growth of suburban district for series 
of years. 

2. Distribution of growth in each section of suburban 
district. 

3. Percentage growth of city through a series of 
years. 

4. Assume rates of city growth for future in five 
year periods. 

5. Distribute assumed population at selected date 
by wards. This is checked by actually counting building 
lots in typical blocks. 

6. Relation between number of children 6-14 years 
and total population. 

7. Relation between school population 6-14 years 
and total population through a series of years. 

8. Relation between school enrollment and total 
population through a series of years. 

9. Relation between enrolled pupils and population 
by wards. 

10. Relation by wards between pupils and population 
at selected future date. 



256 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

11. Percentage of pupils through series of past years 
in elementary schools and in high school. 

12. Using assumed future population as the basis, 
apply derived percentages of total pupils and percentage 
distribution. 

13. Assume districts according to relative distances to 
be traveled by pupils and distribute pupils accordingly. 

14. Compare these totals with growth of school at- 
tendance in each district during past series of years. 



LIST OF BOOKS AND REPORTS CONSULTED 

Books 

Arithmetical Abilities, Some Factors Determining Them. C. W. Stone, 

Teachers College, New York City. 
City School Expenditures. G. D. Strayer, Teachers College. 
Educational Measurements. Daniel Starch. Macmillan. 
Educational Tests and Measurements. Walter S. Munroe. Houghton 

Mifflin. 
Elements of Statistical Method. W. I. King. Macmillan. 
Elements of Statistics. Alfred L. Bowley. King, London. 
Grammar of Science. Karl Pearson. 
Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts. Willard C. Brinton. Engineering 

Magazine Co., New York City. 
How to Teach. Strayer & Norsworthy. Macmillan. 

Identification of the Misfit Child. Leonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, N'few York. 
Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements. Edward L. 

Thorndike, Teachers College. 
Laggards in Our Schools. Leonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation. 
Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. G. M. Whipple. Warwick & York, 

Baltunore, Md. 
One Hundred Spelling Demons of the English Language. J. W. Studebaker. 

Newson & Co. 
Primer of Statistics. W. P. and E. M. Elderton. Adams and Charles 

Blade, London. 
Public School Administration. E. P. Cubberley. Macmillan. 
School Health Administration. L. W. Rapeer, Teachers College. 
Scientific Management in Education. J. M. Rice, Publishers' Printing Co., 

New York City. 
Spelling Vocabularies of Business and Personal Letters. Leonard P. Ayres, 

Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 

Reports 

Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society of Education. University of 
Chicago Press. 

257 



258 METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR SURVEYS 

Fifteenth Year Book of the National Society of Education. University of 
Chicago Press. 

Massachusetts State Department, 1916, Courses of Study. 

Second Annual Conference on Educational Measurements. Indiana Uni- 
versity, Bloomington, Ind. 

Report of Bureau of Educational Measurements. State Normal School, 
Emporia, Kan. 

United States Bureau of Education Reports. 

Annual Reports of School Superintendents, 1915-1916: Springfield, Mass.; 
LaCrosse, Wis.; Solvay, N. Y.; Brookline, Mass.; Newton, Mass.; 
Nutley, N. J.; Paterson, N. J.; Rockford, III; North Attleborough, 
Mass.; Altoona, Pa.; Passaic, N. J.; Des Moines, Iowa; New Orleans, 
La. ; Stamford, Conn. ; Topeka, Kan. ; Johnstown, Pa. ; Newark, N. J. 



Scales 
Arithmetic 

S. A. Courtis, 82 Eliot St., Detroit, Mich. 
Daniel Starch, University of Wisconsin. 

Composition 

Harvard-Newton Scale, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 
Myron B. Hillegas, Teachers College, New York. 
S. A. Courtis, 82 EHot St., Detroit, Mich. 

Handwriting 

Edward L. Thorndike, Teachers College, New York 
Leonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York 
Daniel Starch, University of Wisconsin. 
C. Truman Gray, University of Texas. 

Reading 

F. J. Kelly, Emporia, Kan. 

E. L. Thorndike, Teachers College, 
S. A. Courtis, 82 Eliot St., Detroit, Mich. 
Daniel Starch, University of Wisconsin. 
Wm, S. Gray, University of Chicago. 

Score Card for City School Buildings 

G. D. Stray er. Teachers College, New York. 

Spelling 

Leonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 



LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED 259 

Surveys 

Ashland, Ore Fred C. Ayer and others. 

Bridgeport, Conn James H. Van Sickle and others. 

Boston, Mass James H. Van Sickle and others. 

Brookline, Mass James H. Van Sickle and others. 

Buffalo, N. Y New York State Department. 

Butte, Montana George D. Strayer and others. 

Cleveland, Ohio Leonard P. Ayres and others. 

East Orange, N. J E. C. Moore and others. 

Oakland, Cal Ellwood P. Cubberley and others. 

Ohio State Survey State Survey Commission. 

Portland, Ore Ellwood P. Cubberley and others. 

Salt Lake City, Utah Ellwood P. Cubberley and others. 

Springfield, 111 Leonard P. Ayres and others. 



INDEX 



Absence, allowance for, 29 
Acceleration, 47-49 
Administration 

Unit vs. dual plan, 16-18 
Age and progress, 47 
Arithmetic 

Courtis tests, 75-81 

Stone tests, 81 

Time allowance in fifty cities, 

lOI 

Attendance 

Distribution in 386 cities, 39 
In selected cities, 196 
Percentage in school, 1 1 
Percentage school population is 

of entire population, 10 
Persistence of, 43-45 
Promotion, 45 

Proportion of year in school, 44 
Average, arithmetical, 211 
Ayres, Dr. Leonard, 38, 47, 71, 72 
Age and progress, 47 
Building costs, 136-138 
Extent of spelling vocabulary, 

71 
Persistence of attendance, 43 
Spelling scale, 72 

Board of Education 

Organization and duties, 13 

Size of board, 15, 16 
Boston, Mass. 

Building costs, 136 

Evening schools, 114 

Social centers, 119 



Brookline Survey 

Detailed expenditures for seven- 
teen cities, 170-184 
Buffalo, N. Y. 

Size of classes, 57 
Building program, need of, 190 

Score card for school buildings, 

125 
Butte, Montana 

Failure by studies, 53 
Retardation and acceleration, 

49 
School census and enrollment, 

36 

Census, school 

Comparison with school attend- 
ance, Springfield, Mass., 37 

Continuing census, 35 

Value of, 34 
Chicago, 111. 

Cost of open-air class, 149 
Class size 

Elementary, 56, 60 

High school, 56, 60 
Cleveland, Ohio 

Building costs, 136 

Failure by grades and subjects, 

53 
Percentage of pupils in school, 

36 _ 

Socialized activities, 117 
Color-spot chart, 244 
Composition 

Bliss reproduction, 84-86 



260 



INDEX 



261 



Composition {continued) 

Hillegas standards, 87 

Rice test, 83 

Time allowance in j&fty cities, 
100 
Correlation, coefficient of, 219-225 
Course of study, fundamental aims, 

94-96 
Courtis arithmetic tests, 75-81 

Reading tests, 91, 92 

Detroit, building costs, 137 
Deviation, average, 217 

Standard, 218 
Domestic science, time allowance in 

fifty cities, 105 
Drawing, time allowance in fifty 

cities, 104 

Enrollment, by grade and age, 41 
Evening schools 

Attendance, 116 
Boston, 114 
Costs, 115 
Purpose of, 114 
Expenditures 

Comparative tax rates, 156 
Detailed, for seventeen cities, 

170-184 
Distribution for city depart- 
ments, 161, 162 
Distribution within school de- 
partment, 165, 169 
For improvements, 163 
High school departments, 188 
Lack of standards, 153 
Percentage for schools, 159 
Per cent of population, 5-15 

years of age, 158 
Per $1000 of wealth, 154 
Reasons for increased, 153 



Relative, for high and elemen- 
tary, 166, 167 
Springfield, 186 

Frequency, 211 

Typical curves, 232 
Fuel costs, Montclair, 187 

Geography, time allotment in fifty 

cities, 103 
Graphical representation 

Alternate segments, 236 

Color-spot chart, 244 

Comparison of school mainte- 
nance and total tax, 240 

Degree of acceleration and re- 
tardation, 245 

Overlapping of grades, 242, 243 

Principles of, 229, 230 

Promotion illustrated, 234 

Sectors of circles, 238 

Value of, 228 

Vertical columns, 235, 237 

Harvard-Newton scale standards, 88 
High schools 

Failure by subjects, 54 

Size of classes, 58, 59 
Hillegas composition standards, 87 
History, time allowance in fifty 

cities, 102 
Home study, hours per week, 112 

Improvement in service, 33 

Janitors' salaries, 29 

Kansas silent reading test standards, 

89 
Kelly, F. J., silent reading test 

standards, 89 



262 



INDEX 



La Crosse, Wis., age and grade, age 
and progress, 49 



Maintenance, cost of city, 159 

Per cent for city and for schools, 

160 
Detailed school costs, 170-184 
Manual training, time allowance in 

fifty cities, 105 
Massachusetts, size of high school 

classes, 58, 59 
Median, methods of calculation, 

213-216 
Medical inspection, 146 
Middle fifty per cent, 227 
Mode, 216 
Monroe, W. S., relative value of 

different penmanship scales, 70 
Montclair, N. J. 

Assumed population in 1940, 

195 
Chart of organization, 14 
Distributed school attendance 

by districts, 203 
Evening schools, 120 
Fuel costs, 187 
Map of, 7 

Open-air schools, 148 
Organization of schools, 9 
Population and growth, 194 
Population and school attend- 
ance by wards, 200, 201 
School attendance, 197 
School costs, 170-184, 186 
Socialized activities, 119, 120 
Summer schools and play- 
grounds, 121 
Music, time allowance in fifty cities, 
108 
Value of, 108 



Nationality table, 10 
Newark, N. J. 

Building costs, 137 

Open-air classes, 149 
New Jersey, percentage growth, 193 
New York City, percentage growth, 
192 

One Hundred Spelling Demons, 72 
Open-air classes, 147 

Montclair, 148 

Newark and Chicago, 149 
Organization 

Of Montclair schools, 9, 14 

Typical in small city, 22 
Overlapping of grades, 69, 242 

Passaic, N. J., retardation in, 49 
Penmanship 

Ease of rating, 65 

Elements measured, 66 

Equivalence of scores, 70 

How to rate, 67 

Standard scores, 70 

Time allowance in fifty cities, 
100 

Typical scores, 68 
Physical defects, percentage, 144 
Physical training, time allowance 

in fifty cities, 107 
Probable error, 226 
Promotion and attendance, 45 

Failure by grade and subject, 

53 
Percentage of, 52, 53 
Pupils 

Age and grade, 47 
Age and progress, 47 
Causes of retardation, 51 
Distribution by ages, 41 



INDEX 



263 



Pupils (continued) 

Distribution by grades, 39, 41 
Percentage attendance, 45 
Ratio to supervisors, 20, 21 

Quartile, 227 

Reading 

Elements considered, 88 

Kansas silent reading stand- 
ards, 89 

Starch tests, 90 

Courtis tests, 91, 92 

Thorndike visual vocabulary, 92 

Thorndike Scale Alpha, 93 

Time allowance in fifty cities, 97 
Reproduction tests 

Bliss, 85, 86 

Rice, 83 
Retardation, 47-49 

Causes, 50, 51 
Rice, J. M., composition tests, 83 
Rockford, 111., distribution of re- 
tarded pupils, 49 

St. Louis, building costs, 138 
Salaries, of teachers, 28-30 
Annual increment, 32 
Comparison with wages of other 

employees, 31 
Evening school, 28 
Janitors', 29 
Salt Lake City, acceleration and 

retardation, 48 
Sanitation, checking list, 150 
School buildings 

Cost in Boston, Cleveland, De- 
troit, Newark, St. Louis, 136- 

138 
Score card, 125 
Seventy- two high schools, 139 



Score card for school buildings, 125 
Social Centers 

Boston, 119 

Cleveland, 117 

Montclair, 120 
Social worker, 122 
Spelling 

Size of vocabulary, 71 

One Hundred Demons, 72 

Standard scores, 72-74 

Buckingham scale, 74 

Time allowance in fifty cities, 

99 
Springfield, Mass. 

Cost of high and elementary 

schools, 186 
School census and attendance, 

37 
Starch, Daniel, reading standards, 

90 
Statistical interpretation, 205 
Rules for tabulation, 206 
Stone tests, 81 
Strayer, George D. 

Score card for school buildings, 

125 

Coefficient of correlation, 221 
Superintendent of schools 

Authority, 12 

Training, 23 
Supervision, character of, 19 
Supervisors 

Ratio of, to pupils, 20 

Number of teachers for each, 21 
Supplies, cost per capita, 185 
Surveys 

General outline of, 249 

Value of, 3 

Tabulation, principles of, 206-209 
Essential terms, 211 



264 



INDEX 



Tax rates for schools, comparative, 

156 
Teachers 

Character of training, 24 

Experience, 26 

Improvement in service, 33 

Local, 24 

Relative number of men and 
women, 22 

Salaries, 28-30 

Tenure, 25 
Tests, rules for giving, 62-65 
Textbooks, cost per capita, 185 
Thorndike, E, L. 

Visual vocabulary standards, 
92 

Scale Alpha standards, 93 
Time allotment 

Arithmetic, loi 

Art, 104 

Geography, 103 



History, 102 
Language, 100 
Manual Training, 105 
Massachusetts, no 
Music, 108 
New Jersey, in 
Penmanship, 100 
Physical education, 107 
Reading, 97 
Spelling, 99 

Totals for fifteen cities, 109 
Topeka, relative cost of high school 
departments, 188 

Visual vocabulary test standards, 92 

Wealth 

Determines ability to spend, 

154 
School expenditures, 157 
Weighted mean, 212 



